By Mr. Helmuth Von Glasenapp
Retreat Before HinduismJainas had to fight their battle on two fronts since the days of Mahaveera: against the followers of the Vedic Brahmanic religion and against Buddhists. They fought on the first front for their faith against the Vedic manifestation, its bloody sacrifices and its social order which assured precedence to Brahamanas over all other sections of the society; and on the second, against the Buddhist denial of the self and its doctrine of salvation which acknowledged asceticism only in a negligible measure and considered the other saints than the Tirthankaras as those who could guide one's path to salvation. Buddhism had opposed Jainism for some time quite strongly to such an extent that it had to beat the retreat before Buddhism in many areas: why its home in Magadha had become an exclusive domain of Buddhism, and this region got the name Bihar after its many monasteries (Viharas). But the might of Buddhism declined completely as the time progressed; it could not resist Jaina-faith in the west and in the south, and the restoration of the orthodox Brahamanism begun by Kumarila (around 700 A.D.) and Sankara (788-820 A.D.) put an end to it in the whole Ganga-peninsula so that it became extinct in the land of its origin.
Kumarila, the restorer of the Vedic sacrificial service, and Sankara, the pioneer of the illusionistic doctrine of non-duality, also proceeded, with all the weapons of their spirit, against the Jaina-doctrine as a heterodoxy which was inimical to the Vedas. The constant progress of the movement coming from the orthodoxy against all heterodox trends increased the pressure, gradually but surely, and it weighed heavily upon the Jaina-church, and although this knew to war-off the attacks, its position had become much weaker and it was shaken.
The consequence of the awakening of the Brahmanic religiosity was the revival of the Vaisnavite and Saivite sects. Saivism and Vaisnavism proved to be particularly dangerous opponents, and they did a severe damage to Jainism, particularly in the Deccan and the south.
The great Tamilian Saivite singers, Nanasambandhar and Appar (7th century) as also Sundaramurti(8th or 9th century), Manikka- vacakar (around 900) alienated many from Jainism and introduced them to the Siva-cult. Appar is said to have converted the Pallava-king Mahendravarman to Saivism in this way; he destroyed Jaina-buildings in Kuddalor and built Siva-temples. Saivites were particularly supported by the rulers of the Cola-dynasty in their endeavours. Their influence supposed to be the reason, why the Pandya-kings of Madurai who had been so far Jainas embraced Saivism. The Pandya-ruler Sundara (11th century?) who was married to a Cola-princess, the sister of King Rajendra, was supposed to have been won over to Saivism by his wife. Sundara became a fanatic Saivite and he persecuted the compatriots of his earlier faith, who did not follow his example, with ruthless cruelty. It is said that he sentenced to death by impalement not less than 8000 of his subjects who did not want to be converted: the torturing of these unfortunate people is supposed to have been graphically depicted on many sculptures on the walls of the temple of Tivatur in North Arcot.
The Saivite sect of the Lingayats was another mighty enemy of Jainas. This was founded or reorganized by Brahaman Basava, who was a minister of the Kaslacuri-king Bijjala. Bijjala was a ruler in Kaslyan in the period 1156-1167, and it is said that he was a follower of Jainism, Basava succeeded with great vigour and, as Jainas maintain, with great unscrupulousness, in attracting numerous followers to his monotheistic doctrine and in propagating his strongly anti-clerical system which was directed against the Brahmanic caste-order. Lingayats proceeded against Jainas extremely fanatically, damaged their properties and life, destroyed their temples or appropriated them for their purpose. It is said that Saint Ekantada-Ramayya had particularly excelled in the propagation of the new doctrine. It is narrated about him that he had taken a bet with Jainas. According to this, they were obliged to pull down a Jaina-statue and erect Siva's image, if he cut his own head and become alive again by Siva's mercy. When Ekantada-Ramayya succeeded in carrying out the miracle, and Jainas did not want to keep the word, he is said to have cut the head of a statue of their Tirthankara and placed it before the idol of his god as an oblation. When Jainas complained to the king against this act, the saint offered to repeat the miracle and even burn his head to ashes, if Jainas were willing to wage their 700 temples against it. But Jainas did not agree for which Bijjala scolded them and granted a piece of land near Ablur (in present Dharwad district) to the temple of Siva Vira-Somanatha which was erected by Ekantadap-Ramayya.
Lingayatas or the "Vira-Saivas", as they call themselves, got, as the time passed, more and more grouped in the Kannada and Telgu language-regions. Their faith was the state's religion of the Wodeyars of Mysore and Ummatur from 1399-1610 and of the Nayaks of Keladi (Ikkeri or Bednur) from 1550-1763; even now, a very considerable part of the population of the states of the southern west-coast belongs to them. Their attitude with respect to Jainas is characterized by their great hostility. An inscription reports that a fanatic Lingayathad stamped a Linga-symbol on the pillars of the main Basti of the Jainas in Halebid in the year 1638. Jainas protested against this, and an agreement had arrived at. But Jainas, however, promised in this that they would always offer first ashes and betel to their temple according to a Saivite rite and then take up their own ceremonies.
There was also a far-reaching reformation in Visunism approximately around the same time in which Saivism got a new significance in South India. Ramanuja (1050-1137) proclaimed quite successfully, mainly from Srirangam (near Trichinopally), his "qualified monism" having a Visnuite stamp. The Cola-king desired of him that he should teach that Siva was greater than Vishnu. Ramanuja had to flee, because he did not want to yield to this order. The Hoysala-king Bitideva gave him protection and became his follower. But it is said that he ordered that Jainas, compatriots in his earlier religion, be thrown in an oil-mill and crushed, if they did not want to get converted.
It is seen from the inscription from the year 1368 that Jainas were oppressed later by the Srivaisnavas. Jainas then complained to king Bukkarya-I of Vijayanagar against the persecutions to which they were subjected on the side of the Vaisnavites. The king then ordered that the members of both the religions should enjoy the same cultural freedom in his land. Further he ordered that 20 guards be appointed near the Gommata-statue in Sravana Belgola to protect the shrine from denigration and saw to it that the destroyed temples were repaired.
Another founder of Vaisnative sect, Madhva or Anandatirtha (1119-1278) was showing his influence in the Kannada region 100 years after Ramanuja. His doctrine of dualism preached by him got many converts on the west coast and brought a great damage to Jainism. But on the other hand, Brahmana Nimbarka (13th century?) of Nimba (in Bellary district), the originator of the Vaisnavite Bhedabheda-vada ("Doctrine of dualism and non-dualism"), who taught mainly in the north, in the region surrounding Mathura, does not appear to have been able to take up the gauntlet against the Jainas; at least, according to a report, his sect is said to have been rooted out by Jainas which was revived by Srinivasa only later. But then Brahmana Vallabha (1479-1531), the originator of the Krsnaite Suddhadvaita-mata, who was born in the Telugu-region, proved to be a significant opponent. This system taught by him in Mathura was propagated in the surrounding region of the holy Krsna-city, in Rajaputana as also in Gujrat; particularly many rich businessmen who were earlier Jainas, joined him. Also a saint from Bengal, Caitanya (1485-1533) whose missionary sermons unleashed storms of enthusiasm in the whole India appears to have alienated many from Jainism and attracted them to Krsna's Bhakti-doctrine.
The growing might of Hinduism was not revealed to Jainism only in its losing the followers. It was also expressed in the increasing inclination of its followers towards Hinduistic views and customs. Thus more and more Hindu-deities were mentioned in the Jaina-literature from now on, although they have no place in the Jaina-system. They also used terms which reveal a strong influence of the Vedanta; and in the following period, there was greater reconciliation even in the religious belief and social life.
Jainas Under Islamic Rule The conquest of India by Mohammedan which began in the year 712 with the foundation of an Islamic State in Sindh and which continued ever since the invasions of Mahmud Gazni(1001) and Mohammad Ghori (1175) subjected Jainas, as also Hindus, to the same persecutions and oppressions at the hands of the new rulers. Thus the armies of Ala-ud-din Muhammad Shah Khilji, while marching through Gujarat in 1297-98, committed atrocities, end these are remembered even now. Holy idols were desecrated, temples were destroyed or converted into mosques, books were burnt, treasures were looted and many Jainas were killed. Similar atrocities were perpetrated by the fanatic Muslims also in the Deccan and the south when they destroyed the Dravidian states. Jainas had to suffer very much during these difficult times, and their number which had shrunk on account of numerous conversions to Saivism and Visnusim diminished further. They could save themselves from the fanaticism of the Muslims by going underground. They shifted their libraries to underground vaults. Only the chosen few had an access to them, and the buildings in their holy places, which were similar to the tombs of Muslim saints, could keep the Islamic fanaticism at bay.
The fact that Muslim kings proceeded against Jainas with fire and sword and tried to convert them forcefully to their religion should not mean that the relationship between Muslims and Jainas was always inimical. It appears much more that influential preachers like the Arabian missionary Pir Mahabir Khamdayat, who came to India in 1304, succeeded in making many Jainas of Deccan Muslims by his sheer eloquence, and there were often peaceful and friendly contacts between Jainas and Muslims. Ala-ud-din whom Jainas called Khuni, "the bloody fellow" gave the Jaina poet Ramchandra Suri many presents, and Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) honored Ratnasekhara, the author of Sripalcarita. Particualrly a few Moguls distinguished themselves by showing mercy to Jaina teachers. Emperor Akbar (1566-1605) showered kindness on the Svetambara abott Hiravijaya and took so much active interest in the religious concepts of Jainas that there was even a rumour that he had secretly embraced Jaina-faith. At the behest of Hiravijaya, Akbar issued in the year 1593 an edict by which the five hills of Rajgir, the mountain Parsnath in Bihar and other shrines of Svetambaras were declared as places of cultural interest. The emperor forbade further the killings of animals in the surroundings of the holy districts, returned to Jainas the books which were robbed from them and did them many other good deeds. Akbar had also contacts. with Hiravijaya's successor Vijaysena and with Jinacandra, the head of the Kharatara-sect. Emperor Jahangir (1605-1627) attracted similarly Jinacandra and his successor Jinasimha, whom he honoured with the title Yugapradhana, to his court and issued farman for the protection of Satrunjaya. Shahjahan issued a similar farman, and his sons Murad Bakash (at first governor of Gujarat, then emperor for a short period till the was murdered by his brother) and Aurangzeb (1659-1707) awarded the district Satrunjaya with its income of 2 lakhs as Inam to the court-jeweller Satidas, a Jaina. Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) did the same thing with the mountain Parsnath. It was awarded to Jagat Seth (world-businessman) Mahatab Rai and his successors, to secure for Jainas in this way an undisturbed pilgrimage.
Jainas in Hindu-Kingdoms
As it is seen, Jainas could follow their religious practices undisturbed even under many Mohammedan rulers. This was naturally to a greater degree in the case in the independent or almost independent Hindu-states which were little effected by Islam, albeit the fact that the number and significance of the Tirthankaras had diminished considerably on account of their fights with the rivalling Saivite and Visnavite sects. Inscriptions and buildings reveal that the royal patronage of the Jaina faith had not year become extinct in South-West India. The two Gommata-statue erected by believing rulers in two places in South Canara in imitation of the colossus of Sravana Belgola are a visible sign of the loyalty to the faith of Mahaveera's religion: the one in Karkala by the prince Virapandya in the year 1432, and the other in Venur by Timmaraja in 1604. It is interesting to note that Jainism in Mysore had to fight Christianity in the midst of the 16th century. It is reported in an inscription in Humcha written around 1530 that Monk Vidyananda made the Viceroy of Sriraganagara give up the Franconian faith (Peringiyamata) to which he was apparently converted.
Jainas got a great significance in that period above all, in Central India and Rajaputana besides in their old home-state Gujarat. They had a great influence as businessmen and bankers in different princedoms of these regions, and they gave also excellent officers to the state. Supernatural powers were generally attributed to Jaina monks. Thus it is said that Master Munisundarasuri (who died in 1446), known as an author of Upadesarat-nakara and other works, could banish famine by reciting a Stotra and prevented in Sirohi the destruction of the harvest by locust.
Testimony of the glory and riches of Jaina-community are the works of art of this period, above all, the great figures of the Tirthanakras hewed out from the rock near Gwalior in the Tonvar-dynasty (1440-1473), the temples of Rakhabdev and Ranapur (both from the 15th century), the marvellous victory-towers in Rajaputana, etc. Favours shown by the princess of the Sisodiya-dynasty are characteristic for the attitude shown by the Rajputa Hindu-rulers towards them. Since years, Ranas of Mevar gave them their patronage and granted them many privileges. Jainas on their part showed that they were always the true servants of their masters. When Pratap Singh_I (1572-1597) was defeated by emperor Akabar's army and dissolved his fleeing army, a Jaina offered his riches to him to enable him to form a new army, he thus enabled the Rana to continue his march and get final victory. The princes expressed their gratitude by giving Jainas all sorts of freedom. Thus Maharana Raj Singh issued an edict in 1963 by which he forbade killing of animals on the pieces of land belonging to Jainas and ordered that every living being entering the district of their holy places be protected, and besides, not only the animals which were taken to slaughter-house, but also the criminals who had escaped from the arms of the law. Maharana Jay Singh gave orders in an inscription engraved on one of the pillars in Bakrole that no one should dry out the sea-water in the four months of the rainy season, i.e., from the 11th of the month of Asadha (June) to the full moon of Asvina (September), run an oil mill, produce pots that no one should harm a living being during this season in which life sprouts everywhere.
It is worth noting that Jainism got a foothold even in North India in the 15th century. It is said that King Narendracandra of Kangra who ruled around 1427 had become a
Movements for ReformA number of reformers appeared among the Hindus influence by Islamic tendencies which were inimical to idol-worship. They fought very strongly against the use of cult-idols and the worship dedicated to them. The efforts of these men-and we can mention here only the most prominent like Kabir (around 1470), Nanak (around 1500) and Dadu (around 1575) - found an inspiring response and they prompted the establishment of a number of sects which fought against the superficial rituals.
Even amongst Jainas, there was a movement in the same period which rejected idol-worship. The founder of this movement was an influential businessman in Ahmedabad. His name was Lonka Sa and he was a Svetamabara. He visited in the year 1451/52 a temple in which Monks Jnanaji was busy arranging the manuscripts. He offered to contribute to the preservation of these manuscripts which were getting ruined under the influence of time, by taking up the pious work of rewriting them. Jnanaji, gave, therefore, some books, and Lonka started to copy them. While reading holy books he discovered that there was no mention in them about the idol-worship done in the temples and he also found that many things taught by the qualified representatives during his period did not agree with Jainism. He, therefore, studied further and wrote the Sutras he got for copying also for his own purpose. Impressed by his discoveries he decide to reform the Jaina-faith, which was according to him corrupted and re-established it in its original purity. Of course he could not convert Jnanaji, and many others with whom he exchanged his views, but did not also agree with him. But finally, succeeded in winning over a group of pilgrims who were coming from Satrunjaya and marching through Ahmedabad. But the establishment of the sect was not possible till there was a monk who could be its master (Acarya). A layman by name Bhana became ascetic to get over this shortcoming and ordained himself (in 1467). He was the first spiritual head of the community of the Lonkas (Lunkas) or Lumpakas, and his position was inherited by his pupils.
Later there were splits and divisions in the Lonka-sect. The reforms of Lavaji, Vira's son, a layman from Surat who had become an ascetic, was the most significant among them. He found that the life of the Lonkas, with respect to the strictness, fell short of the precepts of the holy scriptures. He, therefore, founded a new sect. It was propagated in the curse of time to such an extent that it became later the most important custodian of Lonka's teachings. This community established in 1653 got the nickname Dhundiya (seekers) from the population of Gujarat, and it meant an honour. But the Dhundiyas gave themselves the name Sthanakavasis, because all their religious action took place in the community house (Sthanak = Upasrya), and not in the temples. Today, their number is more or less the same as that of Digambaras and of idol-worshipping Svetambaras, and they are to be considered to some extent as the third creed of the Jaina-church. But they count themselves among Svetambaras. The only difference they have, apart from some subordinate point, is that they recognize 32 canonic scriptures (Lonka had accepted only 31 scriptures; but the Vyavhar-Sutra rejected by him was considered as authoritative by the Sthankavasis). Their main difference from Svetambaras in the cult was that they do not worship any idols, do not possess temples and give no importnce to pilgrimages. There were again among them different branches. They led a stricter life of monks.
Reforms introduced by Lonka and his successors were not directed against the iconolatry and the form of worship, but they were meant for a general improvement of the discipline and customs. Even though Lonka's opponents fought against his reform in the cult and the ritual, they had to concede that Jainism needed a thorough reformation, because the discipline in monk-orders had become partially slack in the course of time. Lax interpretation of the strict rules of Mahaveera was made so that they were even partially reversed. The ban (except during the rainy season) from staying for long at one place was disregarded, as also the rule of "Aparigraha", i.e. of not possessing any property. The monks all too often gratified their desires, appropriated the property of the church and neglected their spiritual duties. Heads of many monasteries acted like Sankaracaryas and other heads of Hindu-mathas and appeared on elephants and in palanquins followed by their satellites and servants and they utilized the richly flowing charities of their lay-followers in leading a comfortable life. Discerning leaders had again and again tried to fight against these abuses, but without getting a lasting success. It appears that materialism among Svetam-baras had particularly strongly spread in the 17th century. This can be partially explained by the general feeling of insecurity and the degeneration caused by it. But a number of highly talented men filled with genuine piousness succeeded in forming a very powerful tribe of followers who one more brought respect to the old ascetic ideal. Anandaghana, Satyavijaya, Vinayavijaya and Yasovijaya (1624-1688) were the leaders of the movement which was aimed at realizing the old, strict rules meant for monks. The two last named were also fruitful and active writers; we owe to Vinayavijaya the great compendium Lokaprakasa (Torch of the world), an overall depiction of the Jaina-doctrine in its different ramifications, while Yasovijaya has made a name as a writer of nearly a hundred works in Sanskrit an Gujrati. The ascetics who are the followers of these masters wear saffron-yellow clothes to distinguish themselves from the others who wear white clothes. Even now, the community of the "Samavegis" exists and it is respected everywhere for its exemplary conduct of life.
There were also significant radical changes among Digambaras. The ancient, strict discipline of nude asceticism had already become slack in the last centuries of the 1st millennium A.D. This can be seen from the moving complaints of the writers of the that period. The Muslim rulers made it impossible for the monks to move around in nude for Muslims persecuted the naked Yatis. It became thus customary that Munis clothed themselves in the public. This practice is said to have found it s mouthpiece in Vasantakirti (around 1200); his Digamabara followers were later called Visva (Visa- or Bisa-) Panthis, the followers of a "universal" path, i.e., an easy path, accessible to all. Friends of older, stricter views opposed this practice. They later found their main representative in Pandita Banarsidas, who founded in Agra the Terapanthi-sect around the year 1626.
Further Reading:
Future of Jainism in India
May 28, 2008
May 27, 2008
Jains and Jainism in Kerala
Dr. P. D. Padmakumar
The spread of Jainism to Kerala is from Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. Jainism was a stronghold in Kamataka especially in Sravana Belgola during the reign of Chandragupta. Chandragupta was a great promoter of Jainisrn and sent many missionaries to the different parts. Among them somebody came to Kerala and spread Jainism here. This is considered to be the first Jain migration to Kerala. Another group of Jains migrated to Kerala around the 8th century from Tamil Nadu.
Many relics and studies prove the existence of Jainism in Kerala. The remaining of the Jain temples and the images of Tirthankaras have been found from different parts of Kerala. Though there were a number of Jain temples in the past, many of these temples were converted into Hindu temples.
Chithral, a place in Tamil Nadu, was a part of Kerala decades ago. It is said that the Saraswathi Kshethram in Chithral was a Jain temple till 13th century. The temple is situated on a huge rock near cave. This cave is said to have been used by Jain monks, because on the walls of the cave the Tirthankaras images have been engraved. Apart from that the idols of the 23rd and 24th Tirthankaras are erected in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. From these facts there is no doubt to assume that Chitharal Saraswathi Kshethram was a Jain temple.
Nagaraja Swami Kshethram, situated in Nagarcovil, was a part of Travancore is said to be a Jain temple. Six Jain idols have been found from this temple. Mahavira's and Parsvanatha's idols are still being kept in the temple. Palakkad was an important jain centre in the past. Chandraprabha Kshethram (Chandrapraha is the 8th Tirthankara) is a Jain temple. The place where the temple is situated is known as 'Jain Medu' presently there is only one Jain family in Palakkad.
According to Archaeological department, Irinjalakuda Bharataswamy Kshethram is a Jain temple. Now this temple is worshipped by Namboodiries. Bharath was the eldest son of Rishabha Deva, the first Tirthankara of Jains. The Kallil Baghavathy Kshethram at Muvattupuza is a Jain temple, which is also worshipped by Hindus. The idols of Mahavira and Parsva Natha arc seen in these temples.
Apart from these temples many other temples also have been converted into Hindu temples. Jains were one of the civilized groups in Kerala. But in course of time the invasion of Saiva and Vaishnava religions declined the influence of Jains in the community. Many Jain kings were converted into these religions. This is said.to be the reason for the decline of Jainism. In the present. day the main Jain centres in Kerala are: Eranakulam, Calicut and Wayanad. The Jains of Eranakulam and Calicut are belonging to the Svetambara sect and most of them have become successful business men. In Wayanad Jains are mainly farmers and business men. Among these places Wayanad is the most important Jain centre.
Jainism in WayanadAccording to the ancient history of Wayanad Jains are the first group who migrated to Wayanad. The Kannada speaking people in Wayanad are known as Jains, they belong to the Digambara sect and they are called Gowadas. Hoysala kings were the rulers of Kamataka'in the 12th century and Wayanad was a part of Karnataka. At that time Wayanad was known as Bailnad. The rulers of Hoysala Dynasty were Jains till Vishnuvardha. Around the medivial period Saiva religion became a strong hold in Karnataka and the frequent attacks from Salva religion to Jain lead to the migration of Jains to Kerala and especially to Wayanad.
The migrated Jains first came to Panamaram on the banks of Kabani river. From there the Jain groups spread to the different parts of Wayanad. These Jains were basical1y farmers. Digging and ploughing were against their belief. So as to keep their belief they introduced eco-farming in Wayanad. Jainism was in its peak in Wayanad during the days of Hoysala Dynasty. Hoysala kings promoted Jainism and they sent many missionaries to the different parts to spread Jainism. There are many proofs, which justify the existence of Jainism in Wayanad. The history tells us that the Bathery Jain temple was built 800 years ago.
Earlier this temple was known as Kidangad Basti and the older name of Batheiy was Hennaredu Bedhi (twelve streets). These two names are Kannada names and it shows the influence of the Kamataka Jains. Some other similar place names are: Bennagode (Venniyode), Palagonthu (Palukunnu), Muthangadi (Puthangadi), and Hosengadi (Mananthavady). All these Kannada names are the fool-proof evidence to justify the existence of Jains in Wayanad.
It is believed that the wall inscriptions in Edakkal Caves (the oldest historical monument in Wayanad) are closely related to Jainism. The Swastik mark, the mark of the seventh Tirthankara, Suparswa Natha, has been engraved on the wall. The Chandrabimbamark, the mark of the eighth Tirthankara, Chandra Natha, also can be seen on the wall of the cave. The other inscriptions on the wall are the Hoysala kings'. The former Hoysalas were Jains.
In the thirteenth century Jainism was in its peak in Wayanad. By the end of eighteenth centuiy the religion became too weak because of the increasing influence of the Hindu religion and the invasion of Saiva - Vaishnava religions. In this period many Jain temples were destroyed and some of them were possessed by Hindus. The relics of these ruined temples can be seen in Bathery, Puthangadi and Poothadi.
At present Wayanad is considered to be one of the important Jain centres. According to the latest survey the total Jain population in Wayanad is 1581. Among them 797 are male and 784 are female. In Wayanad the main Jain centers are: Mananthavady, Panamaram, Anjukunnu, Varadoor, Kalpetta and Kaniyambatta.The Jain Community in WayanadThe Jain Community in Wayanad has been divided into nine units. In one unit there are nine committee members. Among them seven members are the Directors of the committee and the remaining two members are Chairman and Convener. The nine units are:
a) Anjukunnu Unit : The Anjukunnu Unit consists of thirty-seven families and the total number of members is 147. Among them seventy-four are married. There are seventy-one male and seventy-six female in the unit. Most of the Jains in this area are farmers. Apart from farmers there are teachers and employees.
b). Kalpetta Unit : In Kalpetta unit there are sixty-three families and it has the strength of 249 members 137 are married. The number of male are 131 and female are 118. The noted writer, cultural critic and former Union Minister Mr. M.P. Veerendrakumar, belongs to this unit.
c) Kaniyambatta Unit : The Kaniyambatta unit consists of fifty-two families and the number of members are 236. Among them 126 are married. There are 128 male and 108 female in the unit. The members of Kaniyambatta unit are basically fanners. Some of them doing business and most of the youth are doing their higher studies in different branches.
d) Karinkutty Unit : The total number of families in Karinkutty unit are twentynine. The total number of members is 116. Among them fifty-six are male and sixtyare female. Sixty-six members are married.
e) Muttile Unit : There are forty-three families in Muttil unit and it has the strength of 157 members. There are seventy-seven male and eighty female members. Among them eighty members are married.
f) Neervaram Unit : Neervaram unit consists of fifty-eight families and the total number of members is 211. There are 101 male and the remaining 110 are female. The number of married is 102.
g) Poothadl Unit: There are forty-nine families and 163 members in this unit. Among them seventy-two are male and ninety-two are married.
h) Puthlyidam Unit : Puthiyidam Unit consists of thirty-two families and 126 members. There are sixty-seven male and fifty female members. Among them seventy are married.
i) Vennlyode Unit : Venniyode unit comprises forty4hree families and 176 members. Among these members seventy-five are married. There are ninety-four male and eighty-two female.
All these nine units function with a view to uplift the standard of living of the Jains in the community. Most of the Jains are rich enough and have achieved a social status in the society. As far as some other Jains are concerned even now they are in the lower shelves. These Jain units try to occupy a better position and sphere for them.
Jain Temples in Wayanad1. Sulthan Bathery Jain templeThis is an ancient Jain temple situated at Sultan Bathery town. It is supposed to have been built around twelfth century A.D. The temple was taken over, by Tippu sultan and used as the Battery for his army. It is now under the possession of Archaeology Department who repaired the temple in 1996. Though this temple surroundings had a large Jain population in ancient times, there are no Jains in this area now. On the pillars and on the walls of the temple are engraved with the images of Tirthankaras. One of the specialities of this temple is that no piece of wood is used for the construction of the temple even the roof of the temple is made of stones. The Wayanad Jain community conducts a Navakhalasha Panchamritha Abhisheka Pooja at this temple on the occasion of Mahaveer Jayanthi every year.
2. Sri Adblswara Swami Temple, ManantbavadyThis is temple situated about 1 k.m. from Mananthavady. It is supposed to be centuries old. In 1960 the hereditary custodian Late Shri.D.Padmaja Tharakan handed over the temple to a trust, which was formed with Late Shri. Palukkunnu Chandrayya Gowder as President. The temple was renovated in 1958 and Pancha Kalyana was conducted.
3. Anandapuram Shrl. Adblshwara Swami Temple, PuthlyadamThis temple is situated about eight k.ms from Mananthavady town. It was constructed in 1957 and Pancha Kalyana Prathista Mahotsava was conducted in June of the same year.
4. Shri. Ananthanatha Swamy Temple, AnanthakrlshnapuramThis is one of the main Jain temples of Wayanad. It was situated in a place called Kalpavathy or old Kalpetta. It was originally managed by the Uralan Shri. Payappa Tharakan after whom the management was taken over by Sri. P.C. Mandappa Gowder in 1926, who formed a trust to manage the temple in 1931. This temple, which was dilapidated, was shifted and newly constructed at t place called Ananthakrishna puram and Pancha Kalyana Mahotsava conducted in 1933 under the Leadership of Late Shri. M.K.Subbiah Gowder and then by Late Shri. M. K.Ananthayya Gowder. Presently the temple is situated on the Kalpetta Mananthavady road about five k.ms from Kalpetta town.
5. Shri. Ananthanatha Swamy Kshethram, VaradoorThis Jain temple was originally situated at Arapatha near Echome. It was shifted to Kottavayal, and from there again to its present near Varadoor in. 1964. the temple was constructed under the leadership of late Shri.V. K. Vardhman Gowder. Panchakalyana Mahotsva was conducted in 1977 when the present idol was installed. A copper inscription has been found in this temple. And this inscription reads that, "Lalithappan son of a Kamataka king, came to Wayanad 300 years ago and donated valuable things to all the Jain temples." The temple is run by a trust, formed in 1953 by late V.P. Ananthayya Gowder.
6. Shri. Chandranatha Swamy Temple, PuthanangadiThis is one of the ancient Jain temples of Way an ad. A number of old and dilapidated ruins of other Jain temples are found around this temple. This temple is situated on the Panamaram - Nadayal road about five kilometers from Panamaram town. This place was originally known as Mannikapuram and was supposed to be a centre of trade in gems and pearls. In course of time this name was changed to Muthangadi and now as Puthanangadi. In 1950 a trust was formed to develop this temple under the leadership of late Shri. Ramachandra Gowder of Neervaram who renovated the temple. Later a new idol was installed and Panchakalyan was conducted in 1958 leadership of late Shri.M. V. Jinachandra Gowder.
7. Shri. Parsva Natha Swamy Kshethram, AnjukunnuThis is a newly constructed temple in 1996. The Panchakalyana Prathishta Mahotsva was conducted in the same year. It is situated about three kilometers from the Kalpetta - Mananthavady main road at a place called Anjukunnu.
8. Shri. parsva Natha Swami Kshethram, PalukunnuThis is another oldest Jain temple in Wayanad. The temple is situated at Palukunnu, which is about six kilometers away from Anjukunnu on Mananthavady - Kalpetta main road. It was renovated in 1950 by Kalathingal Krishna Gowder. About three decades back Parsva Natha Swami Kshetra trust was formed. The current President is Shri P.M. Vardhamanan.
9. Shrl. Shanthl Natha Swamy Devaswom, VennlyodeThis is a very old Jain temple of Wayanad. The temple was run and managed by the hereditary 'Uralans'.a. Thazheveettil Shri. ShanthaIj Tharakanb. Shri. Brahma Soori Tharakanc. Shri. M.P.C. Jaind. Venniyodc Shri. Dcvaraj Tharakan
These 'Uralalns' (hereditary custodians) handed over the temple to a trust consisting of twelve members on May 1955. in 1964 the temple was renovated and Panchakalyan was conducted under the leadership of Late Shri M. K Jinachandran. Earlier to this a Panchakalyana was conducted in 1928 under the leadership of Sargur Shri Chandra Sagara Swmaji. The annual pooja of this temple is conducted on Vaishaga Shuklanavami. The present temple is managed by a trust under the president ship of Shri. MJ. Vijayapadman. The temple is situated about eight kilometers from Kambalakkad town.
10. Chandranatha Girl KshethramThis temple is situated on top of a single huge rock called Myladipara near Kalpetta. There was a huge idol of Chandranatha Tirthankara, which was worshipped in earlier times. This idol was destroyed by miscreants and only remnants of it remain today. A number of caves are situated behind the rock, which was used by Jain monks in earlier times. A temple renovation committee was formed about three decades ago under the President ship of M. S. Padmiah Gowder and later Shri P.M. Vardhamana took over the President ship. A pooja is conducted dunng March/April every year in which all the community members participate
The Contributions of Jain Community to WayanadOne of the main contributions of Jainism is that the introduction of eco-friendly cultivation in Wayanad. Jains were against the digging and ploughing of the land. So as to keep their belief they did not plough or dig the land. In the field of irrigation Jains have contributed a lot. Some of the dams and ponds built by Jains still exist in: Cheeral, Kazhampukunnu, Nambiarkunnu, Chulliyode, Kolliyadi, Thaloor, Sultan Bathery, Meenangadi, Panamaram, Anjukunnu and Nadavayal. These ponds and dams were built in the medivial period. The Jains of that time used to store water in these ponds, dams and irrigated the crops. Doddappan Pond, near Sultan Bathery is one of those kinds. These ponds and dams, adjourned to the Jain temples were not only for the exclusive use of the temples but also for the use of men and animals.
Jains were experts in paddy cultivation and they introduced it in Wayanad. Like that the introduction of pepper and Robesta Coffee were the contributions of Jains. Another important contribution of Jains is in field of architecture. Most of the ancient Jain temples are in the Vijayanagara style. The temples have Mukhmandapa, Garbhagriha, Ardhamandapa and Mahamandapa. Sultan Bathery Jain temple is built in the same style. One of the specialities of this temple is that for the construction of the temple no piece of wood has been used, even the roof of the temple is made of stones. The engravings in the Puthanangadi Jain temple deserve a special mention here. Along with the Jain statues, the images of Matsya, Kunna and Varaha images too can be seen on the walls of this temple.
Jains are the first group who started social life in Wayanad. Centuries ago they migrated and started living together. The older name of Sulthan Bathery was 'Hennaredu Bedhi', which means 'twelve streets'. This is a Kannada name and the migrated Jains were from Karnataka. History and the name 'Hennerdu Bedhi' tell us that there were twelve well organized streets and it was the main centre of Jains. Thus Jains paved the way for the social life in Wayanad.
Important Personalities and Their ContributionsShri.M.K.Jinachandran is considered to be the founding father of modern Wayanad. He was a great visionary and he did many things for the development of Wayanad and its people. He started the first High School in Wayanad, S.K.M.J.High.School, Kalpetta, which is considered to be one of the premier educational institutions in Wayanad. He also established fifteen L.P and U.P, Schools in Wayanad. For the development of the S.C and S.T sections he started a 'Kanyagurukulam'. Late Shri Ragavan Master, former MLA of Wayanad was a student of 'Kanyagurukulam'. The first to introduce telephone in the district is Shri. M K. Jinachrtdran who also introduced post offices here. He started the first petrol pump and vehicle service station.
Shri. Maniamkode Krihshna Gowder,a committed freedom fighter, is another important figure, who has contributed much in the fields of agriculture. He introduced Robesta Coffee in Wayanad; its seeds were brought from Africa. He made every endeavour to bring Gandhiji to Wayanad. As a result of his efforts Gandhiji came to Wyanad on January 14th, 1943. Palukunnu Chandrayya Gowder is another philanthropist, worked for the welfare of the people. He donated land and building for the inception of a Government Hospital in Panamaram. He started the Gandhi Memorial U.P School in Anjukunnu. Presently it is run by Christian management. Sri.V.K. Vardhamana Gowder started co-operative societies and banks in Wayanad. He also donated land for the veterinary hospital in Vardoor. Shri. M.P.Chandranathan, Sri. Vijayapadman, Shri Mandappa Gowder, Koottamunda Subbya Gowder, Shri. M. K. Padmaprabha, Shri M. P. Veerendra Kumar, are the other personalities who dedicated their life for the development of Wayanad. All these personalities donated a lione share of their money and land to uplift the people of Way an ad as well as the growth of Wayanad.
The spread of Jainism to Kerala is from Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. Jainism was a stronghold in Kamataka especially in Sravana Belgola during the reign of Chandragupta. Chandragupta was a great promoter of Jainisrn and sent many missionaries to the different parts. Among them somebody came to Kerala and spread Jainism here. This is considered to be the first Jain migration to Kerala. Another group of Jains migrated to Kerala around the 8th century from Tamil Nadu.
Many relics and studies prove the existence of Jainism in Kerala. The remaining of the Jain temples and the images of Tirthankaras have been found from different parts of Kerala. Though there were a number of Jain temples in the past, many of these temples were converted into Hindu temples.
Chithral, a place in Tamil Nadu, was a part of Kerala decades ago. It is said that the Saraswathi Kshethram in Chithral was a Jain temple till 13th century. The temple is situated on a huge rock near cave. This cave is said to have been used by Jain monks, because on the walls of the cave the Tirthankaras images have been engraved. Apart from that the idols of the 23rd and 24th Tirthankaras are erected in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. From these facts there is no doubt to assume that Chitharal Saraswathi Kshethram was a Jain temple.
Nagaraja Swami Kshethram, situated in Nagarcovil, was a part of Travancore is said to be a Jain temple. Six Jain idols have been found from this temple. Mahavira's and Parsvanatha's idols are still being kept in the temple. Palakkad was an important jain centre in the past. Chandraprabha Kshethram (Chandrapraha is the 8th Tirthankara) is a Jain temple. The place where the temple is situated is known as 'Jain Medu' presently there is only one Jain family in Palakkad.
According to Archaeological department, Irinjalakuda Bharataswamy Kshethram is a Jain temple. Now this temple is worshipped by Namboodiries. Bharath was the eldest son of Rishabha Deva, the first Tirthankara of Jains. The Kallil Baghavathy Kshethram at Muvattupuza is a Jain temple, which is also worshipped by Hindus. The idols of Mahavira and Parsva Natha arc seen in these temples.
Apart from these temples many other temples also have been converted into Hindu temples. Jains were one of the civilized groups in Kerala. But in course of time the invasion of Saiva and Vaishnava religions declined the influence of Jains in the community. Many Jain kings were converted into these religions. This is said.to be the reason for the decline of Jainism. In the present. day the main Jain centres in Kerala are: Eranakulam, Calicut and Wayanad. The Jains of Eranakulam and Calicut are belonging to the Svetambara sect and most of them have become successful business men. In Wayanad Jains are mainly farmers and business men. Among these places Wayanad is the most important Jain centre.
Jainism in WayanadAccording to the ancient history of Wayanad Jains are the first group who migrated to Wayanad. The Kannada speaking people in Wayanad are known as Jains, they belong to the Digambara sect and they are called Gowadas. Hoysala kings were the rulers of Kamataka'in the 12th century and Wayanad was a part of Karnataka. At that time Wayanad was known as Bailnad. The rulers of Hoysala Dynasty were Jains till Vishnuvardha. Around the medivial period Saiva religion became a strong hold in Karnataka and the frequent attacks from Salva religion to Jain lead to the migration of Jains to Kerala and especially to Wayanad.
The migrated Jains first came to Panamaram on the banks of Kabani river. From there the Jain groups spread to the different parts of Wayanad. These Jains were basical1y farmers. Digging and ploughing were against their belief. So as to keep their belief they introduced eco-farming in Wayanad. Jainism was in its peak in Wayanad during the days of Hoysala Dynasty. Hoysala kings promoted Jainism and they sent many missionaries to the different parts to spread Jainism. There are many proofs, which justify the existence of Jainism in Wayanad. The history tells us that the Bathery Jain temple was built 800 years ago.
Earlier this temple was known as Kidangad Basti and the older name of Batheiy was Hennaredu Bedhi (twelve streets). These two names are Kannada names and it shows the influence of the Kamataka Jains. Some other similar place names are: Bennagode (Venniyode), Palagonthu (Palukunnu), Muthangadi (Puthangadi), and Hosengadi (Mananthavady). All these Kannada names are the fool-proof evidence to justify the existence of Jains in Wayanad.
It is believed that the wall inscriptions in Edakkal Caves (the oldest historical monument in Wayanad) are closely related to Jainism. The Swastik mark, the mark of the seventh Tirthankara, Suparswa Natha, has been engraved on the wall. The Chandrabimbamark, the mark of the eighth Tirthankara, Chandra Natha, also can be seen on the wall of the cave. The other inscriptions on the wall are the Hoysala kings'. The former Hoysalas were Jains.
In the thirteenth century Jainism was in its peak in Wayanad. By the end of eighteenth centuiy the religion became too weak because of the increasing influence of the Hindu religion and the invasion of Saiva - Vaishnava religions. In this period many Jain temples were destroyed and some of them were possessed by Hindus. The relics of these ruined temples can be seen in Bathery, Puthangadi and Poothadi.
At present Wayanad is considered to be one of the important Jain centres. According to the latest survey the total Jain population in Wayanad is 1581. Among them 797 are male and 784 are female. In Wayanad the main Jain centers are: Mananthavady, Panamaram, Anjukunnu, Varadoor, Kalpetta and Kaniyambatta.The Jain Community in WayanadThe Jain Community in Wayanad has been divided into nine units. In one unit there are nine committee members. Among them seven members are the Directors of the committee and the remaining two members are Chairman and Convener. The nine units are:
a) Anjukunnu Unit : The Anjukunnu Unit consists of thirty-seven families and the total number of members is 147. Among them seventy-four are married. There are seventy-one male and seventy-six female in the unit. Most of the Jains in this area are farmers. Apart from farmers there are teachers and employees.
b). Kalpetta Unit : In Kalpetta unit there are sixty-three families and it has the strength of 249 members 137 are married. The number of male are 131 and female are 118. The noted writer, cultural critic and former Union Minister Mr. M.P. Veerendrakumar, belongs to this unit.
c) Kaniyambatta Unit : The Kaniyambatta unit consists of fifty-two families and the number of members are 236. Among them 126 are married. There are 128 male and 108 female in the unit. The members of Kaniyambatta unit are basically fanners. Some of them doing business and most of the youth are doing their higher studies in different branches.
d) Karinkutty Unit : The total number of families in Karinkutty unit are twentynine. The total number of members is 116. Among them fifty-six are male and sixtyare female. Sixty-six members are married.
e) Muttile Unit : There are forty-three families in Muttil unit and it has the strength of 157 members. There are seventy-seven male and eighty female members. Among them eighty members are married.
f) Neervaram Unit : Neervaram unit consists of fifty-eight families and the total number of members is 211. There are 101 male and the remaining 110 are female. The number of married is 102.
g) Poothadl Unit: There are forty-nine families and 163 members in this unit. Among them seventy-two are male and ninety-two are married.
h) Puthlyidam Unit : Puthiyidam Unit consists of thirty-two families and 126 members. There are sixty-seven male and fifty female members. Among them seventy are married.
i) Vennlyode Unit : Venniyode unit comprises forty4hree families and 176 members. Among these members seventy-five are married. There are ninety-four male and eighty-two female.
All these nine units function with a view to uplift the standard of living of the Jains in the community. Most of the Jains are rich enough and have achieved a social status in the society. As far as some other Jains are concerned even now they are in the lower shelves. These Jain units try to occupy a better position and sphere for them.
Jain Temples in Wayanad1. Sulthan Bathery Jain templeThis is an ancient Jain temple situated at Sultan Bathery town. It is supposed to have been built around twelfth century A.D. The temple was taken over, by Tippu sultan and used as the Battery for his army. It is now under the possession of Archaeology Department who repaired the temple in 1996. Though this temple surroundings had a large Jain population in ancient times, there are no Jains in this area now. On the pillars and on the walls of the temple are engraved with the images of Tirthankaras. One of the specialities of this temple is that no piece of wood is used for the construction of the temple even the roof of the temple is made of stones. The Wayanad Jain community conducts a Navakhalasha Panchamritha Abhisheka Pooja at this temple on the occasion of Mahaveer Jayanthi every year.
2. Sri Adblswara Swami Temple, ManantbavadyThis is temple situated about 1 k.m. from Mananthavady. It is supposed to be centuries old. In 1960 the hereditary custodian Late Shri.D.Padmaja Tharakan handed over the temple to a trust, which was formed with Late Shri. Palukkunnu Chandrayya Gowder as President. The temple was renovated in 1958 and Pancha Kalyana was conducted.
3. Anandapuram Shrl. Adblshwara Swami Temple, PuthlyadamThis temple is situated about eight k.ms from Mananthavady town. It was constructed in 1957 and Pancha Kalyana Prathista Mahotsava was conducted in June of the same year.
4. Shri. Ananthanatha Swamy Temple, AnanthakrlshnapuramThis is one of the main Jain temples of Wayanad. It was situated in a place called Kalpavathy or old Kalpetta. It was originally managed by the Uralan Shri. Payappa Tharakan after whom the management was taken over by Sri. P.C. Mandappa Gowder in 1926, who formed a trust to manage the temple in 1931. This temple, which was dilapidated, was shifted and newly constructed at t place called Ananthakrishna puram and Pancha Kalyana Mahotsava conducted in 1933 under the Leadership of Late Shri. M.K.Subbiah Gowder and then by Late Shri. M. K.Ananthayya Gowder. Presently the temple is situated on the Kalpetta Mananthavady road about five k.ms from Kalpetta town.
5. Shri. Ananthanatha Swamy Kshethram, VaradoorThis Jain temple was originally situated at Arapatha near Echome. It was shifted to Kottavayal, and from there again to its present near Varadoor in. 1964. the temple was constructed under the leadership of late Shri.V. K. Vardhman Gowder. Panchakalyana Mahotsva was conducted in 1977 when the present idol was installed. A copper inscription has been found in this temple. And this inscription reads that, "Lalithappan son of a Kamataka king, came to Wayanad 300 years ago and donated valuable things to all the Jain temples." The temple is run by a trust, formed in 1953 by late V.P. Ananthayya Gowder.
6. Shri. Chandranatha Swamy Temple, PuthanangadiThis is one of the ancient Jain temples of Way an ad. A number of old and dilapidated ruins of other Jain temples are found around this temple. This temple is situated on the Panamaram - Nadayal road about five kilometers from Panamaram town. This place was originally known as Mannikapuram and was supposed to be a centre of trade in gems and pearls. In course of time this name was changed to Muthangadi and now as Puthanangadi. In 1950 a trust was formed to develop this temple under the leadership of late Shri. Ramachandra Gowder of Neervaram who renovated the temple. Later a new idol was installed and Panchakalyan was conducted in 1958 leadership of late Shri.M. V. Jinachandra Gowder.
7. Shri. Parsva Natha Swamy Kshethram, AnjukunnuThis is a newly constructed temple in 1996. The Panchakalyana Prathishta Mahotsva was conducted in the same year. It is situated about three kilometers from the Kalpetta - Mananthavady main road at a place called Anjukunnu.
8. Shri. parsva Natha Swami Kshethram, PalukunnuThis is another oldest Jain temple in Wayanad. The temple is situated at Palukunnu, which is about six kilometers away from Anjukunnu on Mananthavady - Kalpetta main road. It was renovated in 1950 by Kalathingal Krishna Gowder. About three decades back Parsva Natha Swami Kshetra trust was formed. The current President is Shri P.M. Vardhamanan.
9. Shrl. Shanthl Natha Swamy Devaswom, VennlyodeThis is a very old Jain temple of Wayanad. The temple was run and managed by the hereditary 'Uralans'.a. Thazheveettil Shri. ShanthaIj Tharakanb. Shri. Brahma Soori Tharakanc. Shri. M.P.C. Jaind. Venniyodc Shri. Dcvaraj Tharakan
These 'Uralalns' (hereditary custodians) handed over the temple to a trust consisting of twelve members on May 1955. in 1964 the temple was renovated and Panchakalyan was conducted under the leadership of Late Shri M. K Jinachandran. Earlier to this a Panchakalyana was conducted in 1928 under the leadership of Sargur Shri Chandra Sagara Swmaji. The annual pooja of this temple is conducted on Vaishaga Shuklanavami. The present temple is managed by a trust under the president ship of Shri. MJ. Vijayapadman. The temple is situated about eight kilometers from Kambalakkad town.
10. Chandranatha Girl KshethramThis temple is situated on top of a single huge rock called Myladipara near Kalpetta. There was a huge idol of Chandranatha Tirthankara, which was worshipped in earlier times. This idol was destroyed by miscreants and only remnants of it remain today. A number of caves are situated behind the rock, which was used by Jain monks in earlier times. A temple renovation committee was formed about three decades ago under the President ship of M. S. Padmiah Gowder and later Shri P.M. Vardhamana took over the President ship. A pooja is conducted dunng March/April every year in which all the community members participate
The Contributions of Jain Community to WayanadOne of the main contributions of Jainism is that the introduction of eco-friendly cultivation in Wayanad. Jains were against the digging and ploughing of the land. So as to keep their belief they did not plough or dig the land. In the field of irrigation Jains have contributed a lot. Some of the dams and ponds built by Jains still exist in: Cheeral, Kazhampukunnu, Nambiarkunnu, Chulliyode, Kolliyadi, Thaloor, Sultan Bathery, Meenangadi, Panamaram, Anjukunnu and Nadavayal. These ponds and dams were built in the medivial period. The Jains of that time used to store water in these ponds, dams and irrigated the crops. Doddappan Pond, near Sultan Bathery is one of those kinds. These ponds and dams, adjourned to the Jain temples were not only for the exclusive use of the temples but also for the use of men and animals.
Jains were experts in paddy cultivation and they introduced it in Wayanad. Like that the introduction of pepper and Robesta Coffee were the contributions of Jains. Another important contribution of Jains is in field of architecture. Most of the ancient Jain temples are in the Vijayanagara style. The temples have Mukhmandapa, Garbhagriha, Ardhamandapa and Mahamandapa. Sultan Bathery Jain temple is built in the same style. One of the specialities of this temple is that for the construction of the temple no piece of wood has been used, even the roof of the temple is made of stones. The engravings in the Puthanangadi Jain temple deserve a special mention here. Along with the Jain statues, the images of Matsya, Kunna and Varaha images too can be seen on the walls of this temple.
Jains are the first group who started social life in Wayanad. Centuries ago they migrated and started living together. The older name of Sulthan Bathery was 'Hennaredu Bedhi', which means 'twelve streets'. This is a Kannada name and the migrated Jains were from Karnataka. History and the name 'Hennerdu Bedhi' tell us that there were twelve well organized streets and it was the main centre of Jains. Thus Jains paved the way for the social life in Wayanad.
Important Personalities and Their ContributionsShri.M.K.Jinachandran is considered to be the founding father of modern Wayanad. He was a great visionary and he did many things for the development of Wayanad and its people. He started the first High School in Wayanad, S.K.M.J.High.School, Kalpetta, which is considered to be one of the premier educational institutions in Wayanad. He also established fifteen L.P and U.P, Schools in Wayanad. For the development of the S.C and S.T sections he started a 'Kanyagurukulam'. Late Shri Ragavan Master, former MLA of Wayanad was a student of 'Kanyagurukulam'. The first to introduce telephone in the district is Shri. M K. Jinachrtdran who also introduced post offices here. He started the first petrol pump and vehicle service station.
Shri. Maniamkode Krihshna Gowder,a committed freedom fighter, is another important figure, who has contributed much in the fields of agriculture. He introduced Robesta Coffee in Wayanad; its seeds were brought from Africa. He made every endeavour to bring Gandhiji to Wayanad. As a result of his efforts Gandhiji came to Wyanad on January 14th, 1943. Palukunnu Chandrayya Gowder is another philanthropist, worked for the welfare of the people. He donated land and building for the inception of a Government Hospital in Panamaram. He started the Gandhi Memorial U.P School in Anjukunnu. Presently it is run by Christian management. Sri.V.K. Vardhamana Gowder started co-operative societies and banks in Wayanad. He also donated land for the veterinary hospital in Vardoor. Shri. M.P.Chandranathan, Sri. Vijayapadman, Shri Mandappa Gowder, Koottamunda Subbya Gowder, Shri. M. K. Padmaprabha, Shri M. P. Veerendra Kumar, are the other personalities who dedicated their life for the development of Wayanad. All these personalities donated a lione share of their money and land to uplift the people of Way an ad as well as the growth of Wayanad.
May 26, 2008
Origin of Oswals
Mr. C. M. Lodha
There are different opinions about the origin of Oswals .The popular ones are,Opinion of Jain Acharyas
According to ‘Upkesh Gachh Pattawali’ Acharya Sri Ratna Prabh Suri did his ‘Chathurmas’ in the Veer Sanwat year 70 at Upkeshpur Pattan and he addressed the king and his people and converted them into Jains. Changing religion is not a big thing but to make a community to follow non-violence from violence was a historical achievement. He preached that Yagya & Havana were all against the Jainism and made all of them mahajan.
Accordingly to Upkesh Gachh Pattawali, the Raja or King of Srimal Pattan had 2 sons – Utpaldev and Sripunj. One day Utpaldev teased Sripunj, so Sripunj got angry and said, “you are giving me orders as if you have won this kingdom by your own means and power”
Utpaldev immediately realised this and he left the city with his friend Uhad and met Raja Sadhu of Dhelipur (Delhi). With his blessings he built a new city Upkeshpur. As the farming of sugar cane (Ganna) was done on that place, the name of the city was kept as Upkeshpur, which in a short time became famous as Upkeshpur Pattan. The city was about 12 yojans in length and 9 yojans in breadth. Many traders, scholars, Brahmins settled in this new city of Upkeshpur Pattan.
Acharya Ratna Prabh Suri-The city of Raganpur in the state of Vidyadhar was ruled by Raja Mahendra Chud. The queen Mahadevi Laxmi gave birth to a son who was named ‘Ratna Chud Vidhyadhar’. Ratna Chud was a great scholar, very brilliant and had skills in many Vidhyas. One day when he was flying in his ‘Viman’ (plane), it stopped near Mount Abu. On inquiry it was found that Acharya Sri Swamprabh Suri was passing by. Ratna Chud got down from his plane and bowed to the Acharya. From the preaching’s of Acharya he became disciple of Acharya and took ‘Disksha’ in the year Veer Sanwat 52. After getting skilled in various philosophical, intellectual and spiritual rites he became Acharya.
One day Acharya Sri Ratna Prabh Suri was touring near Abu, ‘Chakreshwari Devi’ came and asked Acharya if he could visit Upkeshpur Pattan then the Jain religion could be spread much faster. So the Acharya along with his 500 disciples reached Upkeshpur Pattan.
In Upkeshpur Brahmins were very powerful. They had blessings from the king in doing Havan, yagya etc. So when Acharya came the brahmins did not allow the Acharya to enter the city. So the Acharya and disciples were forced to stay on Lunadri mountain. All saints were under the ritual of ‘Maas Shraman’ (Fasting for a month) so in the evening after evening prayer (Pratikraman) the Acharya ordered to return back in the morning.
At night ‘Chamunda Devi’ came and bowed to Acharya and asked for forgiveness that she had forgotten the message of Chakreshwari Devi because she was busy in dancing. She requested the Acharya that she would create ‘maya’ so that the citizens will welcome Acharya and disciples. However in the morning Acharya announced to his disciples, that saints busy in Ghor Tapasya to stay and the rest to move else where. 465 saints left and 35 remained to continue the fasting and Tapasya.
The daughter, Saubhagya Kumari of Raja Utpaldev got married to Trilok Singh son of the minister Uhad. A snake bite Trilok singh at night when they both were sleeping. So he died. In the morning when the funeral procession was going Chamunda Devi appeared in saints form and told people why they were taking a living man for funeral and disappeared.
Every body discussed and some people told that they had seen similar saints on Lunadri mountain. All went there with the procession, there the Devi again reappeared in saints dress and told that the sadhus have divine powers. If you sprinkle hot water poured on the Acharya toe on the prince body the prince would regain life. This was immediately done and as expected the prince was back to life.
The whole city was overjoyed. The Acharya and his disciples were treated with full honour and respect and they entered the city. Crowd was cheering with Jai-Jaikar. Acharya stopped in front of the fort and said to remove luxurious things like carpets etc. than only they can enter. All decoration and luxuries were removed and than Acharya and his disciples entered in the palace. When the king offered jewels etc. to Acharya, he said, “Oh king, we have already left all material things long back and we remain busy in tapasya and prayers to the almighty, we have no pleasures even in seeing these things.“ Everyone was surprised.
When the sermon was given then they found out how better the Jain Religion is. The greater happiness can be found by sacrifice and religious ceremonies. The wealth, prosperity and physical pleasures are worldly desires. They increase sorrow & unhappiness at the end. This road leads to hell. The road to heaven is in sacrifices, donations, Dhyan, meditation etc. Before the birth the child faces 9 months of acute hell. The pain at the time of labor cannot be explained. By the action of sacrifices and meditation all pleasures can be gained.
In the year Veer Sanwat 70 the Acharya did his chaturmas (where Muni stay in a place for 4 months) The Acharya and his disciples broke the fast there and due to his continued preaching and sermons 1500 men and 3000 women became sadhu and Sadhvi and 140,000 people adopted Jainism.
The foundation day of Oswals-According to Muni Sri Gyan Sunderji the foundation day of Oswals falls on the fourteenth day of Krishna Paksha in the month of Shravan. All Jain-Oswals celebrate this with sacrifice, prayers and meditation.
The KULDEVI of Oswals-The KULDEVI of Oswals is “Maa Jagat Bhawani Sachhiyay Mata”.
There was a big temple of Chamunda Mata in Upkeshpur presently known as Osiya situated near Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The temple was known for chamatkars and therefore everybody prayed to Chamunda Mata. In Navratri buffaloes were butchered. People used to give offerings of flash of buffaloes to please the Devi. The Acharya Shri Ratna Prabh Suri stopped this practice of animal killing. Because of this the goddess got angry and she created pain in the eyes of Sri Acharya. He did not do anything but continued with the suffering, when Devi found out that no reaction has taken place, she was ashamed. She asked forgiveness from the Acharya. Acharya explained that, “You better not allow killing of animals as offering to you, by asking your devotees to offer you flashes of buffaloes or other animals you are doing your own harm. You will have to face all the wrong that are committed in your name, you have been made Goddess because of your good actions but now you will have to face the hell “ The Goddess got enlightened she told Acharya,” from today no more such killings would be allowed in the temple and even red colored flower shall not be offered. I will accept Prasad & Lapsi, my worship will be done by kesar, chandan (Sandal wood) and Dhup (incense sticks). I will be happy as long as people are devoted to lord Mahavira. I will fulfill all the prayers of my devotees.’
Acharya told from today you are Sachhi Mata. From that day Chamunda mata became and known as Sachhiyay Mata.
The Jain Mandir of Lord Mahavira at Osiya-It is believed and said that Sachhiyay mata was devoted in the Bhakti of lord Mahavira so much so that she decided to build a temple for Lord Mahavira.
The Upkeshpur king had a holy cow. A vary mysterious thing started happening. Everyday in the evening when the cow returns from jungle, she had no milk left. This continued for a while. The person looking after the cows was asked to explain why at particular place cows carried no milk. The shepherd explained that while the cow was roaming in a heightened land the milk flowed out from her automatically in all the four directions, when the milk was finished the cow returned to the herd. Next day also same scene was seen by thousands of people. King Utpal Dev was informed of the incident. Next day the king, the Prime minister & several thousand people gathered and saw the scene. The king narrated the incident to Acharya Sriji and acharya sri ji understood that this was the work of Chamunda Devi. Next day at the auspicious hour, the place was dug up and a deity of lord Mahavira made up of sand was retrieved. In the digging also 9 laks gold coins were also found which were melted and the idol of God Mahavira was covered with gold. Later a temple was built. It is said that the opening Pratistha (the way in which deity is installed) was done by Acharya sriji on Thursday the 5th day of shukla panchami in the year Veer Samvat 70. At the same time Acharya by his Devik powers did Pratistha for another Lord Parshvanath temple in Konarpur, which was miles away from Osiya.
Views/ Philosophy of Bhats and CharansAccording to the writing of Bhats and Charans, the Oswal community was founded in year Vikram Sanwat 222. According to historian Mr. Pooran Chand Nahar and Daulat singh Bhati the oswal community came into existence in 222. However Jagga Shah of Abha Nagri made a big procession of Oswals in 222 and Jagga Shah was Oswal. Which means Oswals were in existence even before 222 but they were called Mahajans and not Oswals.
It is believed that before year 222 all Oswals were of Mahajan community. In year 222 there was a big meeting of Mahajans in Khandela (Near Jaipur) in that meeting Mahajans from Osiya (Upkeshpur), Srimal Nagar, Khandela, Pali, Agrova, Pragvat Nagar etc. came and attended. From that day all the Mahajans were named according to their places. Like from Osiya Oswals, from Srimal Srimali, From Khandela Khandelwal, from Pali Palliwal, from Agrova Agarwal and from Pragvat Porwal etc. Therefore in 70 AD Mahajans came in existence and 222 Ad Oswals came in existence.
Historical ViewSome of the historians like Sri Pooran Chand Nahar, Dr. Bhandarkar, Agarchand Nahata , Hira Chand Ojha, Jagdish Singh Ghelot, Mohnot, Nensi are of the view that Oswals came in existence during the period between 70 AD and 222 AD.
Dr. Bhandarkar says that Utpaldev once asked for Shelter with Parihar king. The Parihar king gave the permission to re-build Bhelpur Pattan. It is said that shelter which was given is called Oslakiya (means take shelter) which later on was turned as Osiya. This was in 9th century.
According to Sohan Raj Bhansali the Oswals started from 8th century.
Osiya in history-The archeological team found many old samples, statues of olden times in Osiya. In the temple of Osiya there is a deity of Harihar, which is half Shiva & half Vishnu, which is vary ancient. The paintings found in Osiya include Vasudeva with baby Krishna on his head, Krishna fighting with horse, Killing of Putna, Kalidaman, Govardhan dharan, butter stealing etc. from the same comes the interesting images of Balram which seem to represent him as the incarnation of Seshnaga.
In olden days Osiya was a very big town. Osiya’s Telivada was situated 3 miles away in Tinvari village, at 6 miles is Pandit ji ki Dhani (small Village which is Pandit pur), at another 6 miles away village Kshatripura, at 24 miles is Lohavat which was place iron smiths colony of Osiya. There were 108 Jain temples in Osiya.
Present Osiya is situated about 40 KM from Jodhpur, Rajasthan. It is connected by road & train with Jodhpur and Pokharan.
ConclusionsThe Bhat, Charans and historians have believed Utpaldev as Parmar after seeing his name in Upkesh gachh Pattawali and concluded that he is the founder of Oswal dynasty, just by finding name of Utpaldev in Parmar dynasty it cannot be concluded that Oswals originated from there.
According to poet Rishab Das book (Hari Vijay Sri Ras) Agar Chand Nahata concludes that Oswals originated in 510 by Sri Ratna Suriji
According to ‘Mahir Stavan’ and ‘Oswal utpati Vratant’ it is Vikram Sanvat 1011 – 15. Dr. Laxmi Mal Singhvi concluded that Oswal originated in 5th century BC. Mr. Bhansali concluded 8th century .Sri Sukh Sampat Raj Bhandari Concludes Vikram Samvat 508.
According to ‘mathuri vachan 2nd’, Skandal Suri (357-360) stated about Mathura resident Oswal Polak who made description on the Tadpatra and gave to various saints there. Which means Oswals were in existence in Mathura before 4th century.
According to Col. Todd hundreds of people of Kshatriya community settled in Osiya gram and were later called Oswals.
Munsi Devi Prasad has written a book “Rajputane ki khoj”. As per that an idol of Lord Mahavira found in Kota while digging and on that name of Bhaisa Shah and V.S. is written, Bhaisa Shah is of Aditya Nag Gotra. Which proves that Oswals were in existence before V.S. 508.
There are different opinions about the origin of Oswals .The popular ones are,Opinion of Jain Acharyas
According to ‘Upkesh Gachh Pattawali’ Acharya Sri Ratna Prabh Suri did his ‘Chathurmas’ in the Veer Sanwat year 70 at Upkeshpur Pattan and he addressed the king and his people and converted them into Jains. Changing religion is not a big thing but to make a community to follow non-violence from violence was a historical achievement. He preached that Yagya & Havana were all against the Jainism and made all of them mahajan.
Accordingly to Upkesh Gachh Pattawali, the Raja or King of Srimal Pattan had 2 sons – Utpaldev and Sripunj. One day Utpaldev teased Sripunj, so Sripunj got angry and said, “you are giving me orders as if you have won this kingdom by your own means and power”
Utpaldev immediately realised this and he left the city with his friend Uhad and met Raja Sadhu of Dhelipur (Delhi). With his blessings he built a new city Upkeshpur. As the farming of sugar cane (Ganna) was done on that place, the name of the city was kept as Upkeshpur, which in a short time became famous as Upkeshpur Pattan. The city was about 12 yojans in length and 9 yojans in breadth. Many traders, scholars, Brahmins settled in this new city of Upkeshpur Pattan.
Acharya Ratna Prabh Suri-The city of Raganpur in the state of Vidyadhar was ruled by Raja Mahendra Chud. The queen Mahadevi Laxmi gave birth to a son who was named ‘Ratna Chud Vidhyadhar’. Ratna Chud was a great scholar, very brilliant and had skills in many Vidhyas. One day when he was flying in his ‘Viman’ (plane), it stopped near Mount Abu. On inquiry it was found that Acharya Sri Swamprabh Suri was passing by. Ratna Chud got down from his plane and bowed to the Acharya. From the preaching’s of Acharya he became disciple of Acharya and took ‘Disksha’ in the year Veer Sanwat 52. After getting skilled in various philosophical, intellectual and spiritual rites he became Acharya.
One day Acharya Sri Ratna Prabh Suri was touring near Abu, ‘Chakreshwari Devi’ came and asked Acharya if he could visit Upkeshpur Pattan then the Jain religion could be spread much faster. So the Acharya along with his 500 disciples reached Upkeshpur Pattan.
In Upkeshpur Brahmins were very powerful. They had blessings from the king in doing Havan, yagya etc. So when Acharya came the brahmins did not allow the Acharya to enter the city. So the Acharya and disciples were forced to stay on Lunadri mountain. All saints were under the ritual of ‘Maas Shraman’ (Fasting for a month) so in the evening after evening prayer (Pratikraman) the Acharya ordered to return back in the morning.
At night ‘Chamunda Devi’ came and bowed to Acharya and asked for forgiveness that she had forgotten the message of Chakreshwari Devi because she was busy in dancing. She requested the Acharya that she would create ‘maya’ so that the citizens will welcome Acharya and disciples. However in the morning Acharya announced to his disciples, that saints busy in Ghor Tapasya to stay and the rest to move else where. 465 saints left and 35 remained to continue the fasting and Tapasya.
The daughter, Saubhagya Kumari of Raja Utpaldev got married to Trilok Singh son of the minister Uhad. A snake bite Trilok singh at night when they both were sleeping. So he died. In the morning when the funeral procession was going Chamunda Devi appeared in saints form and told people why they were taking a living man for funeral and disappeared.
Every body discussed and some people told that they had seen similar saints on Lunadri mountain. All went there with the procession, there the Devi again reappeared in saints dress and told that the sadhus have divine powers. If you sprinkle hot water poured on the Acharya toe on the prince body the prince would regain life. This was immediately done and as expected the prince was back to life.
The whole city was overjoyed. The Acharya and his disciples were treated with full honour and respect and they entered the city. Crowd was cheering with Jai-Jaikar. Acharya stopped in front of the fort and said to remove luxurious things like carpets etc. than only they can enter. All decoration and luxuries were removed and than Acharya and his disciples entered in the palace. When the king offered jewels etc. to Acharya, he said, “Oh king, we have already left all material things long back and we remain busy in tapasya and prayers to the almighty, we have no pleasures even in seeing these things.“ Everyone was surprised.
When the sermon was given then they found out how better the Jain Religion is. The greater happiness can be found by sacrifice and religious ceremonies. The wealth, prosperity and physical pleasures are worldly desires. They increase sorrow & unhappiness at the end. This road leads to hell. The road to heaven is in sacrifices, donations, Dhyan, meditation etc. Before the birth the child faces 9 months of acute hell. The pain at the time of labor cannot be explained. By the action of sacrifices and meditation all pleasures can be gained.
In the year Veer Sanwat 70 the Acharya did his chaturmas (where Muni stay in a place for 4 months) The Acharya and his disciples broke the fast there and due to his continued preaching and sermons 1500 men and 3000 women became sadhu and Sadhvi and 140,000 people adopted Jainism.
The foundation day of Oswals-According to Muni Sri Gyan Sunderji the foundation day of Oswals falls on the fourteenth day of Krishna Paksha in the month of Shravan. All Jain-Oswals celebrate this with sacrifice, prayers and meditation.
The KULDEVI of Oswals-The KULDEVI of Oswals is “Maa Jagat Bhawani Sachhiyay Mata”.
There was a big temple of Chamunda Mata in Upkeshpur presently known as Osiya situated near Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The temple was known for chamatkars and therefore everybody prayed to Chamunda Mata. In Navratri buffaloes were butchered. People used to give offerings of flash of buffaloes to please the Devi. The Acharya Shri Ratna Prabh Suri stopped this practice of animal killing. Because of this the goddess got angry and she created pain in the eyes of Sri Acharya. He did not do anything but continued with the suffering, when Devi found out that no reaction has taken place, she was ashamed. She asked forgiveness from the Acharya. Acharya explained that, “You better not allow killing of animals as offering to you, by asking your devotees to offer you flashes of buffaloes or other animals you are doing your own harm. You will have to face all the wrong that are committed in your name, you have been made Goddess because of your good actions but now you will have to face the hell “ The Goddess got enlightened she told Acharya,” from today no more such killings would be allowed in the temple and even red colored flower shall not be offered. I will accept Prasad & Lapsi, my worship will be done by kesar, chandan (Sandal wood) and Dhup (incense sticks). I will be happy as long as people are devoted to lord Mahavira. I will fulfill all the prayers of my devotees.’
Acharya told from today you are Sachhi Mata. From that day Chamunda mata became and known as Sachhiyay Mata.
The Jain Mandir of Lord Mahavira at Osiya-It is believed and said that Sachhiyay mata was devoted in the Bhakti of lord Mahavira so much so that she decided to build a temple for Lord Mahavira.
The Upkeshpur king had a holy cow. A vary mysterious thing started happening. Everyday in the evening when the cow returns from jungle, she had no milk left. This continued for a while. The person looking after the cows was asked to explain why at particular place cows carried no milk. The shepherd explained that while the cow was roaming in a heightened land the milk flowed out from her automatically in all the four directions, when the milk was finished the cow returned to the herd. Next day also same scene was seen by thousands of people. King Utpal Dev was informed of the incident. Next day the king, the Prime minister & several thousand people gathered and saw the scene. The king narrated the incident to Acharya Sriji and acharya sri ji understood that this was the work of Chamunda Devi. Next day at the auspicious hour, the place was dug up and a deity of lord Mahavira made up of sand was retrieved. In the digging also 9 laks gold coins were also found which were melted and the idol of God Mahavira was covered with gold. Later a temple was built. It is said that the opening Pratistha (the way in which deity is installed) was done by Acharya sriji on Thursday the 5th day of shukla panchami in the year Veer Samvat 70. At the same time Acharya by his Devik powers did Pratistha for another Lord Parshvanath temple in Konarpur, which was miles away from Osiya.
Views/ Philosophy of Bhats and CharansAccording to the writing of Bhats and Charans, the Oswal community was founded in year Vikram Sanwat 222. According to historian Mr. Pooran Chand Nahar and Daulat singh Bhati the oswal community came into existence in 222. However Jagga Shah of Abha Nagri made a big procession of Oswals in 222 and Jagga Shah was Oswal. Which means Oswals were in existence even before 222 but they were called Mahajans and not Oswals.
It is believed that before year 222 all Oswals were of Mahajan community. In year 222 there was a big meeting of Mahajans in Khandela (Near Jaipur) in that meeting Mahajans from Osiya (Upkeshpur), Srimal Nagar, Khandela, Pali, Agrova, Pragvat Nagar etc. came and attended. From that day all the Mahajans were named according to their places. Like from Osiya Oswals, from Srimal Srimali, From Khandela Khandelwal, from Pali Palliwal, from Agrova Agarwal and from Pragvat Porwal etc. Therefore in 70 AD Mahajans came in existence and 222 Ad Oswals came in existence.
Historical ViewSome of the historians like Sri Pooran Chand Nahar, Dr. Bhandarkar, Agarchand Nahata , Hira Chand Ojha, Jagdish Singh Ghelot, Mohnot, Nensi are of the view that Oswals came in existence during the period between 70 AD and 222 AD.
Dr. Bhandarkar says that Utpaldev once asked for Shelter with Parihar king. The Parihar king gave the permission to re-build Bhelpur Pattan. It is said that shelter which was given is called Oslakiya (means take shelter) which later on was turned as Osiya. This was in 9th century.
According to Sohan Raj Bhansali the Oswals started from 8th century.
Osiya in history-The archeological team found many old samples, statues of olden times in Osiya. In the temple of Osiya there is a deity of Harihar, which is half Shiva & half Vishnu, which is vary ancient. The paintings found in Osiya include Vasudeva with baby Krishna on his head, Krishna fighting with horse, Killing of Putna, Kalidaman, Govardhan dharan, butter stealing etc. from the same comes the interesting images of Balram which seem to represent him as the incarnation of Seshnaga.
In olden days Osiya was a very big town. Osiya’s Telivada was situated 3 miles away in Tinvari village, at 6 miles is Pandit ji ki Dhani (small Village which is Pandit pur), at another 6 miles away village Kshatripura, at 24 miles is Lohavat which was place iron smiths colony of Osiya. There were 108 Jain temples in Osiya.
Present Osiya is situated about 40 KM from Jodhpur, Rajasthan. It is connected by road & train with Jodhpur and Pokharan.
ConclusionsThe Bhat, Charans and historians have believed Utpaldev as Parmar after seeing his name in Upkesh gachh Pattawali and concluded that he is the founder of Oswal dynasty, just by finding name of Utpaldev in Parmar dynasty it cannot be concluded that Oswals originated from there.
According to poet Rishab Das book (Hari Vijay Sri Ras) Agar Chand Nahata concludes that Oswals originated in 510 by Sri Ratna Suriji
According to ‘Mahir Stavan’ and ‘Oswal utpati Vratant’ it is Vikram Sanvat 1011 – 15. Dr. Laxmi Mal Singhvi concluded that Oswal originated in 5th century BC. Mr. Bhansali concluded 8th century .Sri Sukh Sampat Raj Bhandari Concludes Vikram Samvat 508.
According to ‘mathuri vachan 2nd’, Skandal Suri (357-360) stated about Mathura resident Oswal Polak who made description on the Tadpatra and gave to various saints there. Which means Oswals were in existence in Mathura before 4th century.
According to Col. Todd hundreds of people of Kshatriya community settled in Osiya gram and were later called Oswals.
Munsi Devi Prasad has written a book “Rajputane ki khoj”. As per that an idol of Lord Mahavira found in Kota while digging and on that name of Bhaisa Shah and V.S. is written, Bhaisa Shah is of Aditya Nag Gotra. Which proves that Oswals were in existence before V.S. 508.
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May 16, 2008
Minority Recognition for Jain Community
By Bal Patil
Jainism is an ancient religion of India. That the genesis of the Jain religion can be traced to deepest antiquity in recorded history is now clearly acknowledged by eminent scholars. The non-Aryan origins of Jain religion are confirmed by H.T.Colebrooke in his Observations on the Sect of Jains. He observes that the Greek authors of the third century B.C. divided all philosophers into two groups- samana (Sramana) and brahmanas so greatly differentiated as they considered them belonging to different races.
Dr. N.R. Guseva of the Academy of Sciences of the erstwhile USSR, in her ethnological study of Jainism emphatically concludes from this: "Only one interpretation can be given to this and that is, in those times followers of Jainism were, in the main, representatives of the pre-Aryan population of the country. This means that there is basis to assert that the chief components of this non-Vedic religion were engendered by non-Aryan ethnical environment. (Jainism, 1971)
The principle of ahimsa (non-violence) and the prescription of strict vegetarianism are the prime and unique characteristics of Jain religion and ethics. They could not have developed in Vedic-brahmanic Aryan culture: there is ample evidence to show that meat eating was not a taboo to immigrant Aryans. But abstention from meat came naturally to the native inhabitants of India because of the climate. That the concept of ahimsa was foreign to Vedic culture is shown by the eminent Indologist Prof. W. Norman Brown in his Tagore Memorial Lectures, 1964-65, Man in the Universe:
"Though the Upanishads contain the first literary reference to the idea of rebirth and to the notion that one's action-karma determines the conditions of one's future existences, and though they arrive at the point of recognizing that rebirth may occur not only in animal form but also in animal bodies, they tell us nothing about the precept of ahimsa. Yet that precept is later associated with the belief is later associated with the belief that a soul in its wandering may inhabit both kinds of forms. Ancient Brahminical literature is conspicuously silent about ahimsa. The early Vedic texts do not even record the noun ahimsa nor know the ethical meaning which the noun later designated… Nor is an explanation of ahimsa deducible from other parts of Vedic literature. The ethical concept which it embodies was entirely foreign to the thinking of the early Vedic Aryans, who recognized no kinship between human and animal creation, but rather ate meat and offered animals the sacrifice to the gods." (pp.53-54)
Therefore Prof. Brown concludes: "The double doctrine of ahimsa and vegetarianism has never had full and unchallenged acceptance and practice among Hindus, and should not be considered to have arisen in Brahminical circles. It seems more probable that it originated in non-Brahminical environment, and was promoted in historic India by the Jains and adopted by Brahmanism Hinduism."
The Jain contribution in the field of ahimsa has been distinctly acknowledged by Lokmanya Tilak: "In ancient times innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifice. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic composition such as Kalidasa's Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to the share of Jainism." (Bombay Samachar, 10-12-1904)
Prof . Hermann Jacobi, the eminent German Indologist said: "In conclusion, let me assert my conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent from all others; and that, therefore, it is of great importance for the study of philosophical thought and religious life in ancient India."
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan affirms that "The Bhagavata Purana endorses the view that Rishabha was the founder of Jainism. There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were worshipping Rishabhdeva, the first Tirthankara. There is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamana (Mahavira) or Parsvanatha. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirthankaras, Rishabha, Ajitanatha and Arishtanemi." (Indian Philosophy, p.287)
Tirthankara literally means one who builds a ford by which to cross the samsara. Mahavira, as senior contemporary of Buddha, lived and preached in sixth century B.C. the ancient Jain way of life characterised by Three Jewels- Ratnatraya Dharma- that is, i) Right Faith, ii) Right Knowledge and iii) Right Action. He put great emphasis on ahimsa and accepted the practices of Yoga, Meditation (Dhyana) and Deep Meditation (samadhi). In him is found a pioneering acceptance of Yoga , both Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga.
Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He did not believe that God created and controlled the whole universe. He considered the recital of Mantras a waste of time and rejected the sacrificial ceremonies. In Jainism, there is no worship of gods, goddesses or spirits. The images of Tirthankaras are worshipped in their temples.
Unlike Buddhism, Jainism did not advocate conversion to its religion and it did not spread outside the country. The very rigorousness and severity of its religious and ethical code of conduct have contributed to its resilience and survival as a minority in all parts of India. The religious life of the Jain community is substantially the same as it was two thousand and five hundred years ago.
Such being the distinctly independent ethnic, religious identity of the Jain community preserved unaltered through two and half millennia it was not surprising that the Jains staked their claim for recognition as a minority. The Jain demand for minority status is almost a century old. When in British India the Viceroy took a decision in principle that the Government would give representation to "Important Minorities" in the Legislative Council, Seth Manekchand Hirachand, acting President of Bharat Varshiya Digambar Jain Maha Sabha, made an appeal to the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Minto, for the inclusion of the Jain community as an Important Minority in his petition dated 2-9-1909. The Viceroy responded positively to this petition informing that in giving representation to minorities by nomination the claim of the important Jain community will receive full consideration.
We may hearken back to the crucial importance given to minority safeguards in the Constituent Assembly Debates. Presenting the Draft Constitution to the Assembly , Dr.Ambedkar, referring to the articles on safeguards for minorities, observed: "To diehards who have developed a kind of fanaticism against minority protection I would like to say two things. One is that minorities are an explosive force which, if it erupts, can blow up the whole fabric of the State…It is for the majority to realize its duty not to discriminate against minorities"
In his Allahabad speech on 3-9-1949, Jawaharlal Nehru said: "No doubt India has a vast majority of Hindus, but they could not forget the fact there are also minorities-Moslems, Christians, Parsis, Jains. If India was understood as a 'Hindu Rashtra' it meant that the minorities were not cent per cent citizens of the country." (The Statesman, 5-9-1949)
In a Memorandum by the Representatives of the Jain Community presented to the Constituent Assembly it was categorically claimed that Jainism being essentially a non-Vedic religion having distinctive social and religious customs and their own system of law, the Jain community should be treated as a minority.
But despite the minority safeguards protestations by the Founding fathers of the Constitution a curious ingenious constitutional exercise of clubbing together of Sikh, Buddhist and Jain religions in the Explanation II in Article 25 of the Constitution of India relating to the Right to Freedom of Religion was done.
Explanation II states: "In sub-clause (b) of Clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jain or Buddhist religion, and the reference to Hindu religious institutions shall be construed accordingly." And sub-clause (b) of Clause 2 of Article 25 states: "providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus."
As B. Shiva Rao's classic exposition The Framing of India's Constitution: A Study shows that Article 25 relating to religious freedom and particularly its explanation II including Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs in the definition of Hindus was finalized by the Fundamental rights Sub-committee comprising of stalwarts like Dr. Ambedkar and Dr. Munshi without proper discussion. It is indeed a constitutional conundrum why the Founding fathers should have resorted to this devious means of social welfare and reform of Hindu religious institutions by a blatant invasion of the admittedly distinct Sikh, Buddhist and Jain religious identities.
Clause (b) of Article 25 and its specious Explanation II is truly a religious Pandora's box. There is no reason why the religious institutions of Sikh, Buddhist and Jain faiths should be treated on par with the Hindu religious ones to push forward Hindu social welfare and reform. It could be nothing but a surreptious attempt- and rather a clumsy one- to take away the religious freedom guaranteed by that very Article under a pretentious Hindu pretext of throwing open the Hindu religious institutions to all classes and sections of the Hindus and then make this reference applicable to Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.
A very unconvincing and clearly untenable attempt which cannot be sustained by constitutional rationalization confirms the suspicion that the particular Clause was not discussed threadbare, nor does it appear from the Constituent Assembly Debates that the protagonists of Jains. Buddhists and Sikhs were given a fair opportunity to discuss its implications for the religious freedom guaranteed under that Article.
In this context it would be useful to review as to what the reaction of the Jain community was at the dawn of the Constitution. On 25th January, 1950, a Jain delegation was led to the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and other central leaders to draw their attention to the anomalous position of the Jains under sub-clause (b) of Clause 2 of Article 25 and a petition was submitted. Jawaharlal Nehru clearly assured the delegation that the Jains are not Hindus and on 31-1-1950, his Principal Private Secretary, Mr. A.B. Ghai wrote the following letter in reply to the petition:
"This Article merely makes a definition. This definition by enforcing a specific constitutional arrangement circumscribes that rule. Likewise you will note that this mentions not only Jains but also Buddhists and Sikhs. It is clear that Buddhists are not Hindus and therefore there need be no apprehension that the Jains are designated as Hindus. There is no doubt that the Jains are a different religious community and this accepted position is in no way affected by the constitution."
The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992, came into force on May 17, 1992. It does not specify as to which religion or religious community is a minority community, nor does it lay down any criteria for so specifying. But sub-section (c) of Section 2 says "minority" for the purposes of this Act, means a community notified as such by the Central Government.
In the aforesaid context a grave injustice has been done to the Jain community in as much as its legitimate constitutional status as a minority community has been denied by the Government of India Notification dated 23-10-1993 declaring Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis) as Minority Communities under the National Commission of Minorities 1992Act.
It is pertinent to note that the Government of India Resolution No.F.8-9/93-SC/ST dated 28-7-95 of the Ministry of Human resources Development, Dept of Education, SC/St Cell, constituting a National Monitoring Committee for Minorities Education (Published in Part I, Section I of the Gazette of India) in its Memorandum of Minorities Education Cl.3.1.3, mentions that "according to 1981 Census the religious minorities constitute about 17.4% of the population of which Muslims are 11.4%, Christians 2.4%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7% and Jains 0.5%. It means that per 10,000 persons in India 8,264 are Hindus, 1,135 are Muslims, 243 are Christians, 196 Sikhs,71 Buddhists and 48 are Jains."
The National Minority Commission in consideration of the following:
the relevant constitutional provisions,
various judicial pronouncements,
the fundamental differences in philosophy and beliefs (theism vs. atheism principally) vis-à-vis Hinduism, and
the substantial number of Jain population in the country, resolved to recommend to the Government of India that the Jains deserve to be recognized as a distinct religious minority, and that, therefore, the Government of India may consider including them in the listing of "Minorities" in their Notification dt.23-10-1993. This recommendation was issued on 3-10-1994.
Even after a lapse of four years the Central Government has not acted on the recommendation. This is because of the hidden Hindutva lobby operating in a section of the bureaucracy, the Government, the Congress, the United Front and now the BJP Alliance prompted by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad's insidious propaganda that the Jains are Hindus. It is pertinent to note in this context the impact of the mendacious Hinduisation process on the Jain Census figures. Hinduism has never been a proselytizing religion like Christianity and Islam but the way the Hindutva propaganda is operating that the Jains are Hindus the result is a surreptitious conversion of Jains by their misleading enumeration as Hindus in the Census. This is evident from the decennial growth rate of the Jain population from 1981 to 1991 which shows just 4% growth while the rest of the Indian population registered a growth rate of about 20 to 24 per cent.
This confirms the apprehension of the Jain community that the BJP-VHP propaganda that the Jains are Hindus is taking its demographic toll. And if this continues unabated there is grave danger of the Jain community being eliminated through such Census-engineering. It is instructive to contrast this with the violent spate of attacks against the Christian community by the Bajrang Dal and the VHP for the alleged conversion by the missionaries.
The National Minorities Commission has been reconstituted in November, 1996 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Tahir Mahmood. In its first meeting held on 17th December, 1996 the Commission has reiterated its previous recommendation that the Jain community be recognized as a minority community. As the Central Government was not inclined to take a decision even after these two clear recommendations, Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, a premier Jain social, religious and cultural institution dedicated to the preservation and propagation of Jain values was constrained to file a writ petition in 1997 in the Bombay High court through its Convener praying for an early decision on the Jain minority issue as recommended.
A Division Bench comprising of Justice Ashok Desai and Justice S.S. Parkar in their order on 20-10-97 directed the Central Government to take an expeditious and as early as possible decision on the issue of Jain minority recognition as recommended by the Minority Commission National. As the Central government failed to take any action on this order, the Convener, Jain Minority Status Committee, filed another Writ Petition in August 1998. The Central Government filed a Counter-Affidavit raising mainly two contentions: one, that 11-Member Bench of the Apex Court was proposed to consider an answer as "to who in the context constitutes a minority has become of utmost significance", and two, that the National Minority Commission has directed the Central Government "to take note of various notes of dissent opposing minority status to Jains, and that the Government would better ascertain the consensus within the Jain community before taking a final decision in the matter."
The Division Bench of the Bombay High Court comprising of Justice Ashok Agarwal and Justice Nijjar proceeded to dispose off the petition without giving an opportunity to the petitioner to respond to the Counter-affidavit and without going into the merits of the matter.
However, a careful reading of the Questions framed in the T.M.A. Pai Foundation case decision by the Apex Court referring the matter to an Eleven Judges' Bench makes it evident that said questions presuppose the existence of a religious or a linguistic minority and the issue before the Supreme Court, as and when it is constituted, would be to consider the scope and ambit of the rights of the minority community in one state with reference to minorities in other States, rather than to inquire into as who and in what circumstances can be declared a minority community.
As regards the dissenting notes forwarded by the National Minorities Commission to the Central government asking it to seek a consensus within the Jain community, the National Minority Commission's stand, to say the least, is preposterous and untenable. In trotting out the excuse of protests without verifying their contents, validity and relevance the Commission has thrown to the winds its constitutional and legal responsibility and its a statutory power of recommendation under the National Commission of Minorities Act, 1992.
It is instructive to refer to an interview given by the Chairman of the National Minorities Commission, Dr. Mahmood, a former dean of the Faculty of Law, Delhi University, to the RSS Hindi Weekly 'Panchjanya' of 2nd March 1997 in which he said categorically :"In our Constitution the Jains are covered by the same provisions as are available to Sikhs and Buddhists.
Constitution does not consider Buddhists, Jain and Sikhs as Hindus…and if our Government has declared Sikhs and Buddhists as Minorities, there is no reason whatsoever in not declaring the Jains as a Minority."
In view of this unambiguous statement by the Chairman one cannot but be shocked by the Commission's letter to the Government on the protests. The NMC did not pause to consider that it was demeaning, nay, denigrating its own raison d'etre as a statutory custodian of minority rights and interests. Underlying this letter seeking the consensus of the Jains is an abject, even unconscionable surrender of its autonomous dignity. It is a blatant surrender of its statutory obligations.
But nevertheless this inscrutable NMC stand has dangerous and far-reaching constitutional repercussions not only for its own meaningful existence, but also for the secular credentials of the State. It will definitely open a Pandora's box of veritable sectional, casteist, communal interests manipulated in an ostensibly democratic manner in a volatile political situation. It is impossible to imagine of a Government not based on constitution and law but on consensus and conscientious decisions!
The interview cited above by the NMC Chairman can be pertinently contrasted with his recent interview to the STARNEWS on 12-1-1999 at 7.30 p.m. when he said that the National Minority Commission has given recognition to Hindus in the State of Jammu and Kashmir and asked the Chief Minister, Mr. Farukh Abdulla, a in a categorical letter written on that day itself to extend to them the same facilities and safeguards as are available to other recognized minorities. This is certainly questionable in the context of the official stand taken by the commission in their decision as noted in the Counter-Affidavit, because the NCM under the relevant Act can only recommend and not recognize a minority status to any group or community.
Earlier Dr. Mahmood in his briefing to the media on 25-11-98 had gone on record stating :"So far, the Government has been content with national-level minorities only. We have come out with the concept of State-level Minorities and have virtually recognized Hindus as a minority entitled to invoke out jurisdiction in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and the Union territories of Lakshadweepa and Chandigarh." (Emphasis supplied) (The Times of India, 26-11-98).
This is quite an innovation not at all warranted by the National Commission Minorities Act, 1992, under which the NMC is constituted. It is incomprehensible how the Chairman can arrogate to himself such powers of suo motu recognition of any community as a minority. What was the procedure followed in this novel concept of "virtual recognition of Hindu community as a minority"? If the underlying basis is merely a demographic count of any community being numerically less than 50 per cent that is also not definitive as per the Supreme Court opinion in re: The Kerala Education Bill (AIR 1958)
The Supreme Court opined that while it was easy to say that minority meant a community which was numerically less than 50 per cent, the important question was 50 per cent of what- the entire population of India or of a state or a part thereof?
Therefore the National Minority Commission's ingenious stand must fall flat. The trouble is that Commission is adopting double standards: one in the case of Hindus and the other in the case of Jains available evidence and criteria: First, there is a recommendation made twice by the NMC, and second, the Jains are in a minority not only in the entire population of India, or State, but in every district or part thereof..
While the National Minority Commission has shown unseemly haste in taking cover under the dissenting notes against Jain Minority status, it did not pause for a moment to consider the propriety of how a sitting Law and Judiciary Minister, Mr. Ramakant Khalap, in the erstwhile United Front Government sworn to uphold the Constitution could climb this bandwagon of protesters?
– Bal PatilJanuary 5, 2003
The author is Convener, Jain Minority Status, Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, Co-author of Jainism (Macmillan Co. 1974) with Dr. Colette Caillat, ex-Rector, Sorbonne University, Paris, and Dr. A.N. Upadhye, a former President of All-India Oriental Conference; and Author of Supreme Courts volte face On Constitutional Amendment published by Govt. of Maharashtra, 1980. He is also a Member of the Maharashtra State Minorities Commission, Government of Maharashtra, (Representative of Jain Community in Maharashtra State).
May 15, 2008
Ancient Jaina Mathematics: an Introduction
by D.P. Agrawal
The origins of Buddhism and Jainism can be placed around the middle of the first millennium BC. Both Jainism and Buddhism were basically rebellions against the rituals and sacrifices of the earlier Brahmanical religions. Somehow the Buddhists seem to have specialised in medicine and the Jainas in maths. Kuriyama says that surgery and physical Ayurveda became two separate traditions, surgery being more important amongst the Buddhists, who… are less hung up about ritual purity and contact with taboo bodily products such as blood. While in Jainism, the founder of the sect Mahavira himself has been claimed as a mathematician. During the period of the Brahmanas, the maths served the main purpose of rituals. The credit for giving maths the form of an abstract discipline goes to the Jainas.
Jaina mathematics is one of the least understood chapters of Indian science, mainly because of the scarcity of the extant original works. For example, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity. They were the first to conceive of transfinite numbers, a concept, which was brought to Europe by Cantor in the late 19th century. The two thousand year old Jaina literature may hold valuable clues to the very nature of mathematics. This is one area where further research could prove very fruitful.
Joseph's book, The Crest of the Peacock, makes a delightful reading and is a powerful book against the Eurocentric History of Science and Technology. And precisely for this reason it has been criticised by western scholars. The following introduction to Jaina maths is mainly based on Joseph's work and A Concise History of Science in India edited by Bose et al.
Unfortunately sources of information on Jaina mathematics are scarce. A number of Jaina texts of mathematical importance have yet to be studied. Surya prajnapti, Jambu Dwipa Prajnapti, Sthananga sutra, Uttaradhyayana sutra, Bhagwati sutra and Anuyoga Dwara sutra are the oldest canonical literature. The first two works are datable to the third or fourth century BC; the others are at least two centuries later.
Basically their religious literature is classified into four groups, called "anuyoga"(the exposition of the principles of Janisim). Ganitanuyoga (the exposition of the principles of mathematics) was one of them. In the period between the end of the Brahamanas and beginning of the Siddhantic astronomy (c. 4th Century AD), the Jaina mathematics played a significant role.
Available Sources The only treatise on arithmetic by a Jaina scholar, which is available at present, is the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira (c. AD 850). The author of the Ganita-sara-samgraha held that the great Mahavira, the founder of Jaina religion, was himself a mathematician.
In the history of the Jaina religion Bhadrabahu (c. Died 298 BC), a very prominent personage, is reputed as the last of the Srutakevalin, because of his phenomenal memory, which enabled him reproduce the entire Jaina canonical literature. Bhadrabahu is also known to be the author of the two astronomical works: (1) a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and (2) an original work called the Bhadrabahavi-samhita. None of these works is available at present. Buhler found a work by the name of the Bhadrabahavi-samhita, but modern scholars have suspected its authenticity on the ground that:
(1) It is of the same character as the other Samhitas; (2) It has not been mentioned by Varahamihira (AD 505) who has referred to many anterior writers; (3) It gives the date of its last redaction as AD 511.
Umasvati was a reputed Jaina metaphysician, but not a mathematician, though he did refer to mathematical formulae. Siddhasena was another mathematician who has been referred to by Varahamihira also. However, from the specific treatises on mathematics we can get a lot of information about the Jainas' knowledge of mathematics from various Ardhamagadhi religious and secular books. Some valuable information as regards the knowledge amongst the early Jainas is expected to be found in the Ksetrasamasa (collection of the places) and Karanabhavana. Jinabhadra Gani (AD 550) wrote two works of the same class: a bigger one, called Brhata ksetrasamasa and a smaller one called Laghu ksetrasamasa.
Topics of MathematicsAccording to the Sthananga-Sutra (c. First Century BC) the main themes for discussion in mathematics are ten in number: parikarama (fundamental operation), vyavahara (subjects of treatment), rajju (geometry), rasi (heap, mensuration of solid bodies), kalasavarna (fractions), yavat-tavat (simple equation), varga (quadratic equations), ghana (cubic equations), varga-varga (biquadratic equations) and vikalpa (permutations and combinations).
Abhayadeva surely thinks that varga, ghana and varga-varga refer respectively to the rules for finding the square, cube and fourth power of a number. But in Hindu mathematics from the earliest times squaring and cubing are considered as fundamental operations and as such they are covered by the terms parikarma. Abhayadeva Suri held that yavat-tavat refers to multiplication or to the summation of the series (samkalita). The early Jainas attached great importance to the subject of permutations and combinations (vikalpa).
The term yavat-tavat entered into the Hindu mathematics more than five centuries before the Greek Diophantus as the symbol for the unknown. The Greek Diophantus suggested that it is connected with the definition of the unknown quantity as "containing an indeterminate or undefined multitudes of units." The ancient work Curni defines the term parikarma as referring to those fundamental operations (sixteen in number) of mathematics as will befit a student to enter into the rest and the real portion of the science.
Certain Mensuration FormulaeIn the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra-bhasya of Umasvati, there is also an incidental reference to two methods of multiplication and division. The multiplication by factor has been mentioned from Brahmagupta and the division by factor is found in the Trisatika of Sridhara. Umasvati is famous as one of the greatest metaphysicians of India and he is held in high esteem equally by the two main sections of the Jainas. He lived about 150 BC.
Schools of MathematicsThe culture of mathematics and astronomy survived in the School of Mathematics at Kusumapura (in Bihar), up to the end of the fifth century of the Christian era, while the school had begun near about the beginning of the Christian era. The famous Jaina saint Bhadrabahu (author of two astronomical works, a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and the Bhadrabahavi-samhita) lived at Kusumapura. Two other important and well-known centres of mathematical studies in ancient India were Ujjain and Mysore. The Ujjain school included the greatest of Indian astronomers Brahmagupta and the mathematician Bhaskaracarya, while the southern school of Mysore had its representative in Mahaviracarya.
Suryaprajnapti (400BC) and other early Jaina Sutras give the length of the diameter and circumference of certain circular bodies. The formula for the arc of a segment less than a semicircle reappears in the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira and the Mahasiddhanta of Aryabhata II (AD 950). The Greek Heron of Alexandria takes the circumference of the segment less than a semicircle. In the Uttaradhyayana-sutra, the circumference is stated roughly to be a little over three times its diameter.
Permutations and CombinationsThe early Jainas seem to have a great liking for the subject of combinations and permutations. A permutation is a particular way of ordering some or all of a given number of items. Therefore the number of ways of arranging them gives the number of permutations, which can be formed from a group of unlike items. A combination is a selection from some or all of a number of items, unlike permutations, the other is not taken into account. Therefore the number of ways of selecting them gives the number of combinations, which can be formed into a group of unlike items. Permutations and combinations were favourite topics of study among the Jainas. In the Bhagawati sutra are set forth simple problems such as finding the number of combinations that can be obtained from a given number of fundamental philosophical categories taken one at a time, two at a time, three at a time or more at a time. The Jaina commentator Silanka has quoted three rules regarding permutations and combinations, two of them are in Sanskrit verse and the other is most interestingly in Ardhamagadhi verse.
Law of IndicesThe law of indices cannot be formulated precisely. But there are some indications that the Jainas were aware of the existence of these laws.
Theory of NumbersLike the Vedic mathematicians, the Jainas had an interest in the enumeration of very large numbers, which was intimately tied up with their philosophy of time and space. All numbers were classified into three groups enumerable, innumerable and infinite, each of which was in turn sub-divided into three orders. The Jainas also classify numbers into odd and even categories. The Jainas could conceive of such huge units of time as 756X 1011 X 8,400,00028 days, which was termed Sirsaprahelika.
Certain Technical TermsIn the Jaina literature the modern geometrical term semi-diameter was found in the writings of Umasvati who calls it vyasardha or viskambhardha. The terms jiva for the chord of a segment of a circle and dhanuprstha for its arc occur in several early canonical works. The numeral symbols were written in two forms: ankalipi and ganitalipi.
GeometryThe term rajju was used in two different senses by the Jaina theorists. In cosmology it was frequently used as a measure of length of about 3.4 X 1021. But in a general sense the Jainas used this term for geometry or mensuration, in which they followed the Vedic sulbasutras. A variety of geometric terms were known to them: sama-cakravala, vratta (circle), jiva ( arc), parimandala (ellipse), ghana vratta (sphere) etc. They had derived the value of pi as root of 10.
As mentioned before, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity: infinity in one direction; infinity in two directions; infinity in area; infinity everywhere; and infinity perpetually. This is quite a revolutionary concept, as the Jainas were the first to discard the idea that all infinities were same or equal, an idea prevalent in Europe till the late 19th Century.
The highest enumerable number (ie, N) of the Jainas corresponds to another concept developed by Cantor, aleph-null, also called the first transfinite number. In their theory of sets, the Jainas further distinguished two basic types of transfinite number. On both physical and ontological grounds, a distinction was made between asmkhyata and ananata, between rigidly bounded and loosely bounded infinities.
This brief glimpse into the Jaina maths clearly shows that mostly this is an uncharted area where a lot of research needs to be done. Two thousand year old Jaina mathematics may hold clues to the very nature of the foundations of mathematics: there lies its importance, and the challenge.
Main Sources:
Joseph, George Gheverghese. 1994. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. London: Penguin Books.
Sen, S.N. 1971. Mathematics. In A Concise History of Science in India (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 136-212.
Reference:Kuriyama, Shigeshi. 1999. The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicine. New York: Zone Books.
The origins of Buddhism and Jainism can be placed around the middle of the first millennium BC. Both Jainism and Buddhism were basically rebellions against the rituals and sacrifices of the earlier Brahmanical religions. Somehow the Buddhists seem to have specialised in medicine and the Jainas in maths. Kuriyama says that surgery and physical Ayurveda became two separate traditions, surgery being more important amongst the Buddhists, who… are less hung up about ritual purity and contact with taboo bodily products such as blood. While in Jainism, the founder of the sect Mahavira himself has been claimed as a mathematician. During the period of the Brahmanas, the maths served the main purpose of rituals. The credit for giving maths the form of an abstract discipline goes to the Jainas.
Jaina mathematics is one of the least understood chapters of Indian science, mainly because of the scarcity of the extant original works. For example, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity. They were the first to conceive of transfinite numbers, a concept, which was brought to Europe by Cantor in the late 19th century. The two thousand year old Jaina literature may hold valuable clues to the very nature of mathematics. This is one area where further research could prove very fruitful.
Joseph's book, The Crest of the Peacock, makes a delightful reading and is a powerful book against the Eurocentric History of Science and Technology. And precisely for this reason it has been criticised by western scholars. The following introduction to Jaina maths is mainly based on Joseph's work and A Concise History of Science in India edited by Bose et al.
Unfortunately sources of information on Jaina mathematics are scarce. A number of Jaina texts of mathematical importance have yet to be studied. Surya prajnapti, Jambu Dwipa Prajnapti, Sthananga sutra, Uttaradhyayana sutra, Bhagwati sutra and Anuyoga Dwara sutra are the oldest canonical literature. The first two works are datable to the third or fourth century BC; the others are at least two centuries later.
Basically their religious literature is classified into four groups, called "anuyoga"(the exposition of the principles of Janisim). Ganitanuyoga (the exposition of the principles of mathematics) was one of them. In the period between the end of the Brahamanas and beginning of the Siddhantic astronomy (c. 4th Century AD), the Jaina mathematics played a significant role.
Available Sources The only treatise on arithmetic by a Jaina scholar, which is available at present, is the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira (c. AD 850). The author of the Ganita-sara-samgraha held that the great Mahavira, the founder of Jaina religion, was himself a mathematician.
In the history of the Jaina religion Bhadrabahu (c. Died 298 BC), a very prominent personage, is reputed as the last of the Srutakevalin, because of his phenomenal memory, which enabled him reproduce the entire Jaina canonical literature. Bhadrabahu is also known to be the author of the two astronomical works: (1) a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and (2) an original work called the Bhadrabahavi-samhita. None of these works is available at present. Buhler found a work by the name of the Bhadrabahavi-samhita, but modern scholars have suspected its authenticity on the ground that:
(1) It is of the same character as the other Samhitas; (2) It has not been mentioned by Varahamihira (AD 505) who has referred to many anterior writers; (3) It gives the date of its last redaction as AD 511.
Umasvati was a reputed Jaina metaphysician, but not a mathematician, though he did refer to mathematical formulae. Siddhasena was another mathematician who has been referred to by Varahamihira also. However, from the specific treatises on mathematics we can get a lot of information about the Jainas' knowledge of mathematics from various Ardhamagadhi religious and secular books. Some valuable information as regards the knowledge amongst the early Jainas is expected to be found in the Ksetrasamasa (collection of the places) and Karanabhavana. Jinabhadra Gani (AD 550) wrote two works of the same class: a bigger one, called Brhata ksetrasamasa and a smaller one called Laghu ksetrasamasa.
Topics of MathematicsAccording to the Sthananga-Sutra (c. First Century BC) the main themes for discussion in mathematics are ten in number: parikarama (fundamental operation), vyavahara (subjects of treatment), rajju (geometry), rasi (heap, mensuration of solid bodies), kalasavarna (fractions), yavat-tavat (simple equation), varga (quadratic equations), ghana (cubic equations), varga-varga (biquadratic equations) and vikalpa (permutations and combinations).
Abhayadeva surely thinks that varga, ghana and varga-varga refer respectively to the rules for finding the square, cube and fourth power of a number. But in Hindu mathematics from the earliest times squaring and cubing are considered as fundamental operations and as such they are covered by the terms parikarma. Abhayadeva Suri held that yavat-tavat refers to multiplication or to the summation of the series (samkalita). The early Jainas attached great importance to the subject of permutations and combinations (vikalpa).
The term yavat-tavat entered into the Hindu mathematics more than five centuries before the Greek Diophantus as the symbol for the unknown. The Greek Diophantus suggested that it is connected with the definition of the unknown quantity as "containing an indeterminate or undefined multitudes of units." The ancient work Curni defines the term parikarma as referring to those fundamental operations (sixteen in number) of mathematics as will befit a student to enter into the rest and the real portion of the science.
Certain Mensuration FormulaeIn the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra-bhasya of Umasvati, there is also an incidental reference to two methods of multiplication and division. The multiplication by factor has been mentioned from Brahmagupta and the division by factor is found in the Trisatika of Sridhara. Umasvati is famous as one of the greatest metaphysicians of India and he is held in high esteem equally by the two main sections of the Jainas. He lived about 150 BC.
Schools of MathematicsThe culture of mathematics and astronomy survived in the School of Mathematics at Kusumapura (in Bihar), up to the end of the fifth century of the Christian era, while the school had begun near about the beginning of the Christian era. The famous Jaina saint Bhadrabahu (author of two astronomical works, a commentary on the Suryaprajnapti and the Bhadrabahavi-samhita) lived at Kusumapura. Two other important and well-known centres of mathematical studies in ancient India were Ujjain and Mysore. The Ujjain school included the greatest of Indian astronomers Brahmagupta and the mathematician Bhaskaracarya, while the southern school of Mysore had its representative in Mahaviracarya.
Suryaprajnapti (400BC) and other early Jaina Sutras give the length of the diameter and circumference of certain circular bodies. The formula for the arc of a segment less than a semicircle reappears in the Ganita-sara-samgraha of Mahavira and the Mahasiddhanta of Aryabhata II (AD 950). The Greek Heron of Alexandria takes the circumference of the segment less than a semicircle. In the Uttaradhyayana-sutra, the circumference is stated roughly to be a little over three times its diameter.
Permutations and CombinationsThe early Jainas seem to have a great liking for the subject of combinations and permutations. A permutation is a particular way of ordering some or all of a given number of items. Therefore the number of ways of arranging them gives the number of permutations, which can be formed from a group of unlike items. A combination is a selection from some or all of a number of items, unlike permutations, the other is not taken into account. Therefore the number of ways of selecting them gives the number of combinations, which can be formed into a group of unlike items. Permutations and combinations were favourite topics of study among the Jainas. In the Bhagawati sutra are set forth simple problems such as finding the number of combinations that can be obtained from a given number of fundamental philosophical categories taken one at a time, two at a time, three at a time or more at a time. The Jaina commentator Silanka has quoted three rules regarding permutations and combinations, two of them are in Sanskrit verse and the other is most interestingly in Ardhamagadhi verse.
Law of IndicesThe law of indices cannot be formulated precisely. But there are some indications that the Jainas were aware of the existence of these laws.
Theory of NumbersLike the Vedic mathematicians, the Jainas had an interest in the enumeration of very large numbers, which was intimately tied up with their philosophy of time and space. All numbers were classified into three groups enumerable, innumerable and infinite, each of which was in turn sub-divided into three orders. The Jainas also classify numbers into odd and even categories. The Jainas could conceive of such huge units of time as 756X 1011 X 8,400,00028 days, which was termed Sirsaprahelika.
Certain Technical TermsIn the Jaina literature the modern geometrical term semi-diameter was found in the writings of Umasvati who calls it vyasardha or viskambhardha. The terms jiva for the chord of a segment of a circle and dhanuprstha for its arc occur in several early canonical works. The numeral symbols were written in two forms: ankalipi and ganitalipi.
GeometryThe term rajju was used in two different senses by the Jaina theorists. In cosmology it was frequently used as a measure of length of about 3.4 X 1021. But in a general sense the Jainas used this term for geometry or mensuration, in which they followed the Vedic sulbasutras. A variety of geometric terms were known to them: sama-cakravala, vratta (circle), jiva ( arc), parimandala (ellipse), ghana vratta (sphere) etc. They had derived the value of pi as root of 10.
As mentioned before, the Jainas recognized five different kinds of infinity: infinity in one direction; infinity in two directions; infinity in area; infinity everywhere; and infinity perpetually. This is quite a revolutionary concept, as the Jainas were the first to discard the idea that all infinities were same or equal, an idea prevalent in Europe till the late 19th Century.
The highest enumerable number (ie, N) of the Jainas corresponds to another concept developed by Cantor, aleph-null, also called the first transfinite number. In their theory of sets, the Jainas further distinguished two basic types of transfinite number. On both physical and ontological grounds, a distinction was made between asmkhyata and ananata, between rigidly bounded and loosely bounded infinities.
This brief glimpse into the Jaina maths clearly shows that mostly this is an uncharted area where a lot of research needs to be done. Two thousand year old Jaina mathematics may hold clues to the very nature of the foundations of mathematics: there lies its importance, and the challenge.
Main Sources:
Joseph, George Gheverghese. 1994. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. London: Penguin Books.
Sen, S.N. 1971. Mathematics. In A Concise History of Science in India (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 136-212.
Reference:Kuriyama, Shigeshi. 1999. The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicine. New York: Zone Books.
Bhadrabahu Samhita: Jain Law
By Acharya Bhadrabahu
Translated by J.L. Jaini
1. In the world, the existence of a son is such a source of happiness that, in the absence of a son, one's birth if fruitless, and a son is taken in adoption by men.
2. If a man has many brothers, and if they are one mind, it is due to his great punya (religious merit). So the great Risis (ascetics) have said!
3. Because of the decline in religious merit, those many brothers for greed of wealth entertain hostile feelings. To remove this trouble, this Law of Partition in undertaken.
4. On the death of father and mother, all those brothers get together the patrimony and divide it equally among themselves. But during the lifetime of the father (the brothers take only), according to the desire of the father.
5. The eldest son alone takes the remaining property of the father. The other brothers, looking, upon him (the eldest son) as a father, should live, in accordance with his wishes.
6. By the birth of the first-born son a man becomes putri, i.e., sonful or a man having a son: and how many soever may be born afterwards, the first-born remains the head of them all.
7. By the birth of the Dharma (religious, i.e., begotten as a duty) son (i.e., the first son) the world calls a man's life fruitful otherwise he is called sinful. This is very surprising.
8-9. Men by having sons become religiously meritorious; and by being sonless, sinful. In this world, many with sons are seen in a low position and begging for grains. And sonless Tirthankaras (the Jaina men-gods) are found to attain the Five Great Acquisitions. [The Panchakalyânâ are: Human conception (grabha), Human Birth (janma), Austerities (tapa), Omniscience (kevala jnâna), and Salvation (moksa)], their lotus-feet are worshipable by the god of gods, and they are possessed of insight into the three worlds.
10. It is the duty of the eldest brother to protect like a father his undivided younger brothers. And these younger brothers also should always look upon the eldest brother as a father.
Commentary: Although it is an effect of religious merit that brothers should be of one mind, yet it is desirable to live separately, for the increase of dharmma (religion or piety). For the merit arising from feeding ascetics, from charity, etc. (on partition), shall accrue to each brother separately, and which merit is rewarded in the form of birth in bhogabhûmi (the land of enjoyment, where men do nothing and get all they want from wishing-trees).
11. Divided brothers live separately each with his own family; for religious merit is increased much by charity, worship, etc.
12. The wealth (that is partitioned) is of two kinds: Sthavara (immoveable) and Jangama (moveable). That property which cannot go from place to place, for example, land etc., is called sthâvara.
13. And that which can be taken from place to place is jangama (moveable), e.g. silver, gold, ornaments, clothes, cattle, women, etc.
14. Sthavara (immoveable property) is not subject to partition, and even such a desire should not be entertained. "In this fourth part of the house, I shall live, you live in that part"- thus (the brothers should) arrange.
15. All brothers from the moveable property that is to be partitioned should give some portion to the eldest brother, and then divide the remainder equally with him.
16. Cattle, etc., being equally divided should be taken (by the brothers), according to the desire of each one. But if some one is unable to take his share, the others can undoubtedly appropriate it.
17. If the brothers have one or more uterine sisters, a fourth part of the share of each brother should be collected and the girls married.
18. The share of a married daughter in the property of the father, in the presence of her brothers, is nothing. Whatever the father gave her at the time of marriage, that only belongs to her.
19. Their mother is also said to be entitled to an equal share with the brothers (her sons). She is entitled to a slightly larger share for meeting the ordinary social expenses (vyavahârârtha). And on her death, all share it.
20. Of the twin-born sons, the son that is produced first is said to be the first-born or the eldest. And the wise have considered him to be entitled to the privileges of the first born at the time of partition.
21. If a daughter is born first, and a son is born afterwards, then also the son is eldest born and not the daughter, according to the Jaina scriptures (jinagama).
22. If a man has only a daughter, and other male issue (santâna) is non-existent, that daughter and her son become the sole owners of the wealth of her father.
23. In the absence of the aforesaid dispositions (rules), a daughter is like a son. For purposes of partition (dâyabhâga) and oblation ceremonies (pindadâna), the daughter's sons are like the sons.
24. The son is born as one's own self. The daughter is like a son. Then, in the presence of that daughter, like one's own self, how can another take the wealth?
25. The mother's property goes to the daughter, whether she be married or unmarried. And of the property of a sonless father, the daughter's son becomes the owner.
26. In this world there is no difference between one's daughter's sons or a son, both of whom are born of the same union and of the same two bodies of a man and his wife.
27. A married daughter dying and being without a son, her husband alone always is the owner of her stridhana, her property.
28. In the absence of thee two (husband and wife), a son, or adopted son of the family, devoted to the father, full of merits, becomes owner of the property of the father.
29. The sons born of a Brahman, Ksatriya, or Vaisya girl married to a Brahman, have their shares thus laid down by the wise.
30. Of the father's immoveable and moveable property, and cattle, etc., ten equal shares have to be made. Each brother should take thus:
31. Four shares should be taken by the sons of the Brahman mother; three by that of the Ksatriya, two of that of the Vaisya mother; and one should be given for religious purposes.
32. The male and female-servants (or slaves) in the house should be maintained by the younger brother, or all brothers united should make arrangement for food and clothes for them.
33. Sons by a Ksatriya father, born of a wife of the same varna (i.e., a Ksatriya woman) get one half of the father's property, and the sons of a Vaisya wife get one-fourth of the same. The sons of a Sudra wife take only what the father has given them, as clothes, etc.
34. The sons of a Vaisya father by a wife of the same varna (i.e. a Vaisya wife) become owners of all his property. His sons by a Sudra wife are entitled only to food and clothes. This is the rule of (inheritance among) the three varna (Brahman, Ksatriya and Vaisya).
35. The sons of a Sudra father by a Sudra wife whether they are one, two or more, or even a hundred, become owners of equal shares.
36. If, of brothers both of the same father, one has a son, all the brothers are considered to be sonful (with a son), because of that son. So it is said by the wise.
37. If of a man's many wives, one becomes the mother of a son, all his wives are considered to be sonful with (a son), because of that son. So it is said by the wise.
38. All these wives dying, that son undoubtedly takes the property of them all. When even one sister (of his mother, i.e., her co-wives) does not remain, the son of that (mother) takes the property of the husband.
39. Not having a son of their bodies, the parents should take a son in adoption. For the adopted son also, like a son of the body, serves the parents affectionately.
40. A sonless man or woman takes a son in adoption. First, they take a writing before witnesses (sasaksi) from the mother and father of the son (to be taken in adoption).
41-42. Having the writing attested by one's relations and people of brotherhood; having it sealed by the King's officers with the royal seal; they invite the man and women of their family and have music, dancing and singing, along with auspicious introductory prayer.
43. In a Jaina temple perform the auspicious ceremony of dvârôdhghâtana (opening the door) and other good deeds (charity, etc.); and place a pitcher of ghee and svastika, and instal the guru (preceptor) before the image of the god.
44-45. Having given head-cloth and waist-cloth (uttariya and adho bastra) (for use in worship) in the temple and having tinkled the sacred bell, they return to their home and give betel-leaves and sreephala (the bilva fruit), etc., previously sprinkled with saffron, to men and women and to servants. Having feasted all, they perform the birth ceremony.
46. The father of the boy should accept and keep the diadems (literally, "crown", mukuta, but here "cap"), sreephala, etc., and one, two, three or four coins (mudrâ) brought by the brotherhood and others.
47. When giving and taking has taken place according to these rites and ceremonies, then the boy is said to be the son of this man (the adoptive father).
48. And it is then alone that in works of estate and trade the son gets recognition, and becomes entitled to land, villages and other things.
49. And then he (the adopted son) obtains ownership and respect in the world, on this samsakâra (the birth ceremony being performed), and the mother and father are considered to be sonful (puttrina).
50-52. If the adopted son beyond the control of the parents, he should be counseled by the parents in persuasive language. then, with the same object, he should promptly be threatened by the father. Then his fault should be disclosed to his (natural) parents, and they should counsel him. If he does not improve, the adoptive father should obtain the acquiescence of his relations and the King's officers, and expel the boy from the house. The King, then, cannot listen to any petition of his rights by the expelled boy.
53. A woman, adopting a boy, and making over all authority to him, puts him in possession of all the moveable and immoveable property, in order to devote herself to her religious practices.
54. And if by chance this boy dies, efforts should be made to protect from theft the property of the husband.
55. But in his place a new boy cannot be installed. The Jaina scriptures do not allow this, (even) if the son dies unmarried.
56. That property (left by the deceased adopted boy) goes to the daughter's son, daughter's issue or to sister's son; or to son-in-law, or may be given to some one else, or employed in feasting the community or in other religious purposes.
57. If the son is dead, it is permissible to instal a son in one's own place; but a new boy may not be installed in the place of the unmarried (deceased) one.
58. In the life-time of the parents, he (the adopted son) has no power to hold or sell the moveable and immoveable property of the father and mother and of the grand-father.
59. In property acquired by the father-in-law or descended from his ancestors, the son's widow is said to have no right to meet her personal expenses whatsoever.
60. One can meet one's proper expenses for social, communal or religious purposes from joint property or from property partitioned, without the consent of the son.
61. On his death, his widow is powerless to alienate the property; she can have an allowance for food and clothes only in proportion to the estate.
62. The son has full control over the property for purposes of trade; but in the presence of the mother he has no power to spend the moveable property.
63. On the son's death, his widow inherits all his property; she should, however, for some time live respectfully with her mother-in-law.
64. Preserving the husband's bed, protecting the family and fixed in her religion, she should instal her son in the place of her husband.
65. The mother-in-law of the widow has no right to obstruct her in installing her son in the estate of her husband. Nor her father and mother have any such power.
66. Good people do not take back the four kinds of property that has been given. Otherwise they go to hell with their families.
67. When a man dies, leaving many sons, and any of the brothers be affected by impotency, etc., then there should not be an equal division to all out of the property of the father.
68. Those who are lame, lunatic, impotent, blind, vicious, hunch-backed, and idiotic should be looked after by their brothers, but they are not entitled to a son's share (in patrimony).
69-70. The manager shall be counselled by the widow in persuasive language (sweet words). If he does not listen to the advice, he should in the first instance be counselled through the King, and his officers, etc. If he does the same again, then, with the
consent of the officers of the king, he should, whether old or new, be publicly expelled from the house.
71. The widow, descended from a good family, should exert herself and preserve the property even as her husband did. And, in accordance with the family traditions, should have her business taken care of by other proper persons.
72. Similarly, she should support the family and relations, so as to obtain the good opinion of the world and an increase of wealth.
73. The good lady may, like her husband, take to herself a son of a good gotra (lineage) and instal him in the estate of her husband. This with regard to her (widows') husband's estate cannot be done by her mother-in-law.
74. The widow of the son has power to spend all. According to the Jaina scriptures, her mother-in-law does not have this right.
75. The son's widow should serve the mother-in-law as her husband did. And if the mother-in-law desires to spend in religious matters, the son's widow should give her funds for that purpose.
76. (Of sons) aurasa, dattaka are primary; and kreeta, sauta, sahodara and upnata are secondary in Jaina scriptures.
77. And these are entitled to get the inheritance and to offer oblations. The others beyond these are not entitled. Aurasa is the son born of one's own wife. Dattaka is the son given and taken with affection (in adoption).
78. Kreeta is the son taken by giving money. So have the wise men said. Sauta is the son of the son's body (i.e., the grandson by a son.) Sahodara is the name of a younger brother (by the same mother.)
79. Upnata. A son who, abandoned by his mother and father, and wandering about in distress (comes and), says "I am a son," is considered an upnata son by the learned.
80. Kritrima is the son whose father, etc., (and mother), are dead and who is like a son. In this way, the differences among primary, secondary and other sons are given.
81. Of these, the first two (i.e., aurasa and dattaka) are primary; and the three, beginning with kreeta, (i.e., krita, sauta, sahodara) are secondary; and upnata and kritrima are reckoned as sons, but cannot offer oblations.
82. If before partition one of the brothers is determined to follow the path of salvation, then, leaving aside the woman's property, shridhan, the property should be equally divided.
83. At the time of marriage, ornaments, etc., given by the parents are called Adhayagni krita stridhana, as given in the presence of fire and Brahmans.
84. Whatever ornaments, etc., the girl brings from her father's house, is called Adhyâhavanika stridhana, as offered in the presence of her father and brother.
85. Whatever is given affectionately as clothes, etc., by the girls' father-in-law or mother-in-law, on the ceremony of seeing the face or sprinkling the (feet with) water, is called Pitridâna stridhana by the wise.
86. Whatever is received by the married girl, such as things, ornaments, clothes, etc., from the parents, brothers or husband, is called Audayika stridhana by the wise.
87. Whatever is given at the time of marriage-ceremony as gold, jewels, clothes, etc., of the girl, by her own or her husband's women relatives, is called Anvadheya stridhana by the wise.
88. These five kinds of property have been called stridhana. It should not be taken by anyone, except in time of famine, acute distress, or for religious purposes.
89. If a man desires to give out of ancestral property anything to his sister or to her son, his son can object to the gift.
90. Without the consent of the son, the father undoubtedly has no power to give anything. On the death of the father, who can obstruct the son giving away the property.
91-92. After having adopted a boy, if a son is born of one's lawful wife, this son alone is worthy of turban-binding ceremony (symbolical of title to succession). And a fourth part being given to the adopted son, he should be separated from the family without witnesses. But if the turban-binding ceremony has been performed (on the adopted son) before the birth of the son, the partition should be in equal shares.
93-94. On the husband dying without son, the widow becomes the owner of the property; she should not, out of affection for her daughter, take a son in adoption. The sons of her husband's elder or younger brother have no right in the inheritance. On her death, her daughter becomes chiefly the owner of all property.
95. On the death of that daughter, her husband becomes owner; on his death, his issue, etc. But his father and brothers and their descendants, etc., have no right in it whatsoever.
96. On the death of the father, whatever property comes into the hands of the elder son, his younger brothers, engaged in the acquisition of learning, have a right to a share in it.
97. The illiterate brothers should make money by trade; and, keeping the father's wealth apart, in the remainder all share equally.
98. The father's estate acquired by his merit is not divisible among the sons. Only one, and not all, should possess it, and he should improve it, by his hand.
99. Whatever ornaments or money are given to the wife by the husband, should not be partitioned by the co-sharers, for fear of going to hell, after death.
100. Whatever a man has acquired by digging (treasure trove), by learning, from friends, from his wife's relatives, cannot be partitioned by anyone.
101. If a man dies leaving many minor sons, the self-acquired property of any of these is not liable to partition.
102-103. When the sons have been separated by the father with due (shares from the) property, and the sons themselves unite their funds and earn a common livelihood from it - in this property, on a re-partition, the brothers themselves should arrange their equal shares, and the eldest brother taken no additional share in it.
104. After a partition among several sons, if one of them dies, on partition of his unobstructed property, his brothers and sisters take in equal shares.
105. If, being full of greed, the eldest brother conceals the property from the younger brothers and cheats them, he deserves to be punished by the King, and he cannot get even his own share.
106. All the brothers who forsake their religion and duty, and become addicted to gambling and other vices, cannot get property, but are liable to punishment.
107. If a son is born after partition, he can take only his father's property. but if it be too small, then his brothers should have him married.
108. If the son dies sonless, the property is taken by his wife herself. On her death, the mother of the son takes the property.
109. After having paid the debts, the balance should be partitioned according to rules. Otherwise, the father and sons should all set about diligently to earn.
110. A well, ornaments, clothes, cattle, pit, secretary, messenger, and priests are not partitioned by the learned.
111-112. If a son dies in the life-time of his parents, his chaste wife has no right, like him, in the grand-father's property. But preserving the husband's bed, fixed in her religion, the widow should, with head bowed down, beg the mother-in-law for a son.
113. If the husband's property is placed in the hands of the father-in-law and mother-in-law, the widow cannot claim it; she can only take what the late husband gave her.
114. If the widow with this permission, takes a boy in adoption, she must take one of the same family, younger than herself and possessed of all qualities.
115. In the Jaina sacred procession, in the image installation ceremony, and in similar religious deeds, and in the bringing up of the family, the widow has power to spend. But in nothing else she has the power to spend.
116-117. Thus, briefly, the rules of Inheritance and Partition have been narrated by me substantially from the Upasakadhyayana, in order to remove troubles and quarrels. Having read this, if one performs public (kingly) duties, one will get praise and reverence in this and a good gati (condition of existence) in the next world.
Translated by J.L. Jaini
1. In the world, the existence of a son is such a source of happiness that, in the absence of a son, one's birth if fruitless, and a son is taken in adoption by men.
2. If a man has many brothers, and if they are one mind, it is due to his great punya (religious merit). So the great Risis (ascetics) have said!
3. Because of the decline in religious merit, those many brothers for greed of wealth entertain hostile feelings. To remove this trouble, this Law of Partition in undertaken.
4. On the death of father and mother, all those brothers get together the patrimony and divide it equally among themselves. But during the lifetime of the father (the brothers take only), according to the desire of the father.
5. The eldest son alone takes the remaining property of the father. The other brothers, looking, upon him (the eldest son) as a father, should live, in accordance with his wishes.
6. By the birth of the first-born son a man becomes putri, i.e., sonful or a man having a son: and how many soever may be born afterwards, the first-born remains the head of them all.
7. By the birth of the Dharma (religious, i.e., begotten as a duty) son (i.e., the first son) the world calls a man's life fruitful otherwise he is called sinful. This is very surprising.
8-9. Men by having sons become religiously meritorious; and by being sonless, sinful. In this world, many with sons are seen in a low position and begging for grains. And sonless Tirthankaras (the Jaina men-gods) are found to attain the Five Great Acquisitions. [The Panchakalyânâ are: Human conception (grabha), Human Birth (janma), Austerities (tapa), Omniscience (kevala jnâna), and Salvation (moksa)], their lotus-feet are worshipable by the god of gods, and they are possessed of insight into the three worlds.
10. It is the duty of the eldest brother to protect like a father his undivided younger brothers. And these younger brothers also should always look upon the eldest brother as a father.
Commentary: Although it is an effect of religious merit that brothers should be of one mind, yet it is desirable to live separately, for the increase of dharmma (religion or piety). For the merit arising from feeding ascetics, from charity, etc. (on partition), shall accrue to each brother separately, and which merit is rewarded in the form of birth in bhogabhûmi (the land of enjoyment, where men do nothing and get all they want from wishing-trees).
11. Divided brothers live separately each with his own family; for religious merit is increased much by charity, worship, etc.
12. The wealth (that is partitioned) is of two kinds: Sthavara (immoveable) and Jangama (moveable). That property which cannot go from place to place, for example, land etc., is called sthâvara.
13. And that which can be taken from place to place is jangama (moveable), e.g. silver, gold, ornaments, clothes, cattle, women, etc.
14. Sthavara (immoveable property) is not subject to partition, and even such a desire should not be entertained. "In this fourth part of the house, I shall live, you live in that part"- thus (the brothers should) arrange.
15. All brothers from the moveable property that is to be partitioned should give some portion to the eldest brother, and then divide the remainder equally with him.
16. Cattle, etc., being equally divided should be taken (by the brothers), according to the desire of each one. But if some one is unable to take his share, the others can undoubtedly appropriate it.
17. If the brothers have one or more uterine sisters, a fourth part of the share of each brother should be collected and the girls married.
18. The share of a married daughter in the property of the father, in the presence of her brothers, is nothing. Whatever the father gave her at the time of marriage, that only belongs to her.
19. Their mother is also said to be entitled to an equal share with the brothers (her sons). She is entitled to a slightly larger share for meeting the ordinary social expenses (vyavahârârtha). And on her death, all share it.
20. Of the twin-born sons, the son that is produced first is said to be the first-born or the eldest. And the wise have considered him to be entitled to the privileges of the first born at the time of partition.
21. If a daughter is born first, and a son is born afterwards, then also the son is eldest born and not the daughter, according to the Jaina scriptures (jinagama).
22. If a man has only a daughter, and other male issue (santâna) is non-existent, that daughter and her son become the sole owners of the wealth of her father.
23. In the absence of the aforesaid dispositions (rules), a daughter is like a son. For purposes of partition (dâyabhâga) and oblation ceremonies (pindadâna), the daughter's sons are like the sons.
24. The son is born as one's own self. The daughter is like a son. Then, in the presence of that daughter, like one's own self, how can another take the wealth?
25. The mother's property goes to the daughter, whether she be married or unmarried. And of the property of a sonless father, the daughter's son becomes the owner.
26. In this world there is no difference between one's daughter's sons or a son, both of whom are born of the same union and of the same two bodies of a man and his wife.
27. A married daughter dying and being without a son, her husband alone always is the owner of her stridhana, her property.
28. In the absence of thee two (husband and wife), a son, or adopted son of the family, devoted to the father, full of merits, becomes owner of the property of the father.
29. The sons born of a Brahman, Ksatriya, or Vaisya girl married to a Brahman, have their shares thus laid down by the wise.
30. Of the father's immoveable and moveable property, and cattle, etc., ten equal shares have to be made. Each brother should take thus:
31. Four shares should be taken by the sons of the Brahman mother; three by that of the Ksatriya, two of that of the Vaisya mother; and one should be given for religious purposes.
32. The male and female-servants (or slaves) in the house should be maintained by the younger brother, or all brothers united should make arrangement for food and clothes for them.
33. Sons by a Ksatriya father, born of a wife of the same varna (i.e., a Ksatriya woman) get one half of the father's property, and the sons of a Vaisya wife get one-fourth of the same. The sons of a Sudra wife take only what the father has given them, as clothes, etc.
34. The sons of a Vaisya father by a wife of the same varna (i.e. a Vaisya wife) become owners of all his property. His sons by a Sudra wife are entitled only to food and clothes. This is the rule of (inheritance among) the three varna (Brahman, Ksatriya and Vaisya).
35. The sons of a Sudra father by a Sudra wife whether they are one, two or more, or even a hundred, become owners of equal shares.
36. If, of brothers both of the same father, one has a son, all the brothers are considered to be sonful (with a son), because of that son. So it is said by the wise.
37. If of a man's many wives, one becomes the mother of a son, all his wives are considered to be sonful with (a son), because of that son. So it is said by the wise.
38. All these wives dying, that son undoubtedly takes the property of them all. When even one sister (of his mother, i.e., her co-wives) does not remain, the son of that (mother) takes the property of the husband.
39. Not having a son of their bodies, the parents should take a son in adoption. For the adopted son also, like a son of the body, serves the parents affectionately.
40. A sonless man or woman takes a son in adoption. First, they take a writing before witnesses (sasaksi) from the mother and father of the son (to be taken in adoption).
41-42. Having the writing attested by one's relations and people of brotherhood; having it sealed by the King's officers with the royal seal; they invite the man and women of their family and have music, dancing and singing, along with auspicious introductory prayer.
43. In a Jaina temple perform the auspicious ceremony of dvârôdhghâtana (opening the door) and other good deeds (charity, etc.); and place a pitcher of ghee and svastika, and instal the guru (preceptor) before the image of the god.
44-45. Having given head-cloth and waist-cloth (uttariya and adho bastra) (for use in worship) in the temple and having tinkled the sacred bell, they return to their home and give betel-leaves and sreephala (the bilva fruit), etc., previously sprinkled with saffron, to men and women and to servants. Having feasted all, they perform the birth ceremony.
46. The father of the boy should accept and keep the diadems (literally, "crown", mukuta, but here "cap"), sreephala, etc., and one, two, three or four coins (mudrâ) brought by the brotherhood and others.
47. When giving and taking has taken place according to these rites and ceremonies, then the boy is said to be the son of this man (the adoptive father).
48. And it is then alone that in works of estate and trade the son gets recognition, and becomes entitled to land, villages and other things.
49. And then he (the adopted son) obtains ownership and respect in the world, on this samsakâra (the birth ceremony being performed), and the mother and father are considered to be sonful (puttrina).
50-52. If the adopted son beyond the control of the parents, he should be counseled by the parents in persuasive language. then, with the same object, he should promptly be threatened by the father. Then his fault should be disclosed to his (natural) parents, and they should counsel him. If he does not improve, the adoptive father should obtain the acquiescence of his relations and the King's officers, and expel the boy from the house. The King, then, cannot listen to any petition of his rights by the expelled boy.
53. A woman, adopting a boy, and making over all authority to him, puts him in possession of all the moveable and immoveable property, in order to devote herself to her religious practices.
54. And if by chance this boy dies, efforts should be made to protect from theft the property of the husband.
55. But in his place a new boy cannot be installed. The Jaina scriptures do not allow this, (even) if the son dies unmarried.
56. That property (left by the deceased adopted boy) goes to the daughter's son, daughter's issue or to sister's son; or to son-in-law, or may be given to some one else, or employed in feasting the community or in other religious purposes.
57. If the son is dead, it is permissible to instal a son in one's own place; but a new boy may not be installed in the place of the unmarried (deceased) one.
58. In the life-time of the parents, he (the adopted son) has no power to hold or sell the moveable and immoveable property of the father and mother and of the grand-father.
59. In property acquired by the father-in-law or descended from his ancestors, the son's widow is said to have no right to meet her personal expenses whatsoever.
60. One can meet one's proper expenses for social, communal or religious purposes from joint property or from property partitioned, without the consent of the son.
61. On his death, his widow is powerless to alienate the property; she can have an allowance for food and clothes only in proportion to the estate.
62. The son has full control over the property for purposes of trade; but in the presence of the mother he has no power to spend the moveable property.
63. On the son's death, his widow inherits all his property; she should, however, for some time live respectfully with her mother-in-law.
64. Preserving the husband's bed, protecting the family and fixed in her religion, she should instal her son in the place of her husband.
65. The mother-in-law of the widow has no right to obstruct her in installing her son in the estate of her husband. Nor her father and mother have any such power.
66. Good people do not take back the four kinds of property that has been given. Otherwise they go to hell with their families.
67. When a man dies, leaving many sons, and any of the brothers be affected by impotency, etc., then there should not be an equal division to all out of the property of the father.
68. Those who are lame, lunatic, impotent, blind, vicious, hunch-backed, and idiotic should be looked after by their brothers, but they are not entitled to a son's share (in patrimony).
69-70. The manager shall be counselled by the widow in persuasive language (sweet words). If he does not listen to the advice, he should in the first instance be counselled through the King, and his officers, etc. If he does the same again, then, with the
consent of the officers of the king, he should, whether old or new, be publicly expelled from the house.
71. The widow, descended from a good family, should exert herself and preserve the property even as her husband did. And, in accordance with the family traditions, should have her business taken care of by other proper persons.
72. Similarly, she should support the family and relations, so as to obtain the good opinion of the world and an increase of wealth.
73. The good lady may, like her husband, take to herself a son of a good gotra (lineage) and instal him in the estate of her husband. This with regard to her (widows') husband's estate cannot be done by her mother-in-law.
74. The widow of the son has power to spend all. According to the Jaina scriptures, her mother-in-law does not have this right.
75. The son's widow should serve the mother-in-law as her husband did. And if the mother-in-law desires to spend in religious matters, the son's widow should give her funds for that purpose.
76. (Of sons) aurasa, dattaka are primary; and kreeta, sauta, sahodara and upnata are secondary in Jaina scriptures.
77. And these are entitled to get the inheritance and to offer oblations. The others beyond these are not entitled. Aurasa is the son born of one's own wife. Dattaka is the son given and taken with affection (in adoption).
78. Kreeta is the son taken by giving money. So have the wise men said. Sauta is the son of the son's body (i.e., the grandson by a son.) Sahodara is the name of a younger brother (by the same mother.)
79. Upnata. A son who, abandoned by his mother and father, and wandering about in distress (comes and), says "I am a son," is considered an upnata son by the learned.
80. Kritrima is the son whose father, etc., (and mother), are dead and who is like a son. In this way, the differences among primary, secondary and other sons are given.
81. Of these, the first two (i.e., aurasa and dattaka) are primary; and the three, beginning with kreeta, (i.e., krita, sauta, sahodara) are secondary; and upnata and kritrima are reckoned as sons, but cannot offer oblations.
82. If before partition one of the brothers is determined to follow the path of salvation, then, leaving aside the woman's property, shridhan, the property should be equally divided.
83. At the time of marriage, ornaments, etc., given by the parents are called Adhayagni krita stridhana, as given in the presence of fire and Brahmans.
84. Whatever ornaments, etc., the girl brings from her father's house, is called Adhyâhavanika stridhana, as offered in the presence of her father and brother.
85. Whatever is given affectionately as clothes, etc., by the girls' father-in-law or mother-in-law, on the ceremony of seeing the face or sprinkling the (feet with) water, is called Pitridâna stridhana by the wise.
86. Whatever is received by the married girl, such as things, ornaments, clothes, etc., from the parents, brothers or husband, is called Audayika stridhana by the wise.
87. Whatever is given at the time of marriage-ceremony as gold, jewels, clothes, etc., of the girl, by her own or her husband's women relatives, is called Anvadheya stridhana by the wise.
88. These five kinds of property have been called stridhana. It should not be taken by anyone, except in time of famine, acute distress, or for religious purposes.
89. If a man desires to give out of ancestral property anything to his sister or to her son, his son can object to the gift.
90. Without the consent of the son, the father undoubtedly has no power to give anything. On the death of the father, who can obstruct the son giving away the property.
91-92. After having adopted a boy, if a son is born of one's lawful wife, this son alone is worthy of turban-binding ceremony (symbolical of title to succession). And a fourth part being given to the adopted son, he should be separated from the family without witnesses. But if the turban-binding ceremony has been performed (on the adopted son) before the birth of the son, the partition should be in equal shares.
93-94. On the husband dying without son, the widow becomes the owner of the property; she should not, out of affection for her daughter, take a son in adoption. The sons of her husband's elder or younger brother have no right in the inheritance. On her death, her daughter becomes chiefly the owner of all property.
95. On the death of that daughter, her husband becomes owner; on his death, his issue, etc. But his father and brothers and their descendants, etc., have no right in it whatsoever.
96. On the death of the father, whatever property comes into the hands of the elder son, his younger brothers, engaged in the acquisition of learning, have a right to a share in it.
97. The illiterate brothers should make money by trade; and, keeping the father's wealth apart, in the remainder all share equally.
98. The father's estate acquired by his merit is not divisible among the sons. Only one, and not all, should possess it, and he should improve it, by his hand.
99. Whatever ornaments or money are given to the wife by the husband, should not be partitioned by the co-sharers, for fear of going to hell, after death.
100. Whatever a man has acquired by digging (treasure trove), by learning, from friends, from his wife's relatives, cannot be partitioned by anyone.
101. If a man dies leaving many minor sons, the self-acquired property of any of these is not liable to partition.
102-103. When the sons have been separated by the father with due (shares from the) property, and the sons themselves unite their funds and earn a common livelihood from it - in this property, on a re-partition, the brothers themselves should arrange their equal shares, and the eldest brother taken no additional share in it.
104. After a partition among several sons, if one of them dies, on partition of his unobstructed property, his brothers and sisters take in equal shares.
105. If, being full of greed, the eldest brother conceals the property from the younger brothers and cheats them, he deserves to be punished by the King, and he cannot get even his own share.
106. All the brothers who forsake their religion and duty, and become addicted to gambling and other vices, cannot get property, but are liable to punishment.
107. If a son is born after partition, he can take only his father's property. but if it be too small, then his brothers should have him married.
108. If the son dies sonless, the property is taken by his wife herself. On her death, the mother of the son takes the property.
109. After having paid the debts, the balance should be partitioned according to rules. Otherwise, the father and sons should all set about diligently to earn.
110. A well, ornaments, clothes, cattle, pit, secretary, messenger, and priests are not partitioned by the learned.
111-112. If a son dies in the life-time of his parents, his chaste wife has no right, like him, in the grand-father's property. But preserving the husband's bed, fixed in her religion, the widow should, with head bowed down, beg the mother-in-law for a son.
113. If the husband's property is placed in the hands of the father-in-law and mother-in-law, the widow cannot claim it; she can only take what the late husband gave her.
114. If the widow with this permission, takes a boy in adoption, she must take one of the same family, younger than herself and possessed of all qualities.
115. In the Jaina sacred procession, in the image installation ceremony, and in similar religious deeds, and in the bringing up of the family, the widow has power to spend. But in nothing else she has the power to spend.
116-117. Thus, briefly, the rules of Inheritance and Partition have been narrated by me substantially from the Upasakadhyayana, in order to remove troubles and quarrels. Having read this, if one performs public (kingly) duties, one will get praise and reverence in this and a good gati (condition of existence) in the next world.
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