Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie

Ashish Vashi

They were diverse cultures, yet Jainism and Islam blend superbly in the exquisite stone filigreed mosque architecture of this city wher even emperor Akbar was compelled to ban animal slaughter and Pizza Hut opened its first veggie outlet. James Fergusson, a Scottish authority on architecture of 19th century wrote in his monumental work, ‘History of architecture in all countries, from the earliest times to present day’, “Of the various forms which Saracenic architecture assumed in India, that of Ahmedabad may probably be considered the most elegant, and is certainly the most characteristic of all. No other form is so essentially Indian and no one tells the its tale with the same unmistakable distinctness” .

He also wrote, “In Ahmedabad itself, however the Hindu influence continued to be felt throughout. Even the mosques are Hindu or rather Jaina, in every detail.”

Jains have always had a great influence in the city since Ahmed Shah founded Ahmedabad in 1411.

The Supreme Court too has cited examples of co-existence of Jain and Mughal architecture. Terming Mughal emperor Akbar as "the architect of modern India", a bench said that Akbar, who had great respect for Jainism, had declared "Amari Ghosana" banning the killing of animals during Paryushan and Mahavir Jayanti. He rolled back the Jazia tax from Jain pilgrim places like Palitana. These farmans were also issued in 1592, 1584 and 1598.

Akbar had received delegation led by Jain monk Hir Vijaya Suri who walked to Fatehpur Sikri. They persuaded the emperor to forbid the slaughter of animals for six months in Gujarat and abolish the confiscation of property of deceased persons, the Sujija Tax (Jazia) and a Sulka (possibly a tax on pilgrims) and free caged birds and prisoners. Akbar is said to have given up hunting and quit meat -eating forever as it had become repulsive. Such was a influence of Jainism in Ahmedabad.

Pan to 21st century and Ahmedabad’s Jain influence continues.

Some years ago when Pizza Hut did a market survey in Ahmedabad before opening its first outlet in Gujarat, it was surprised by the overwhelming response for a vegetarian outlet and the first vegetarian Pizza Hut in the world opened here. There’s another first from world’s vegetarian capital-- An Ahmedabad-based hotel and restaurant chain is poised to open a 5-star pure vegetarian hotel in Surat.

Jain Scholar Dr Kumarpal Desai says, “The Jain tradition gives many sanskaras to city. one can find it all in educational institutes, business institutes and other trusts, the focal point of these trusts is public interest. Visionary Jain tradition — the mahajan parampara also dealt with political streams in their own way”.

Early Jain Tradition in the West

Early Jain Tradition in the West

-Dr. Bhuvanendra Kumar

The Early accounts of contact between Jainism and the West, dating back to the time of King Chandragupt and Alexander in 3rd Century B.C.E. have been hitherto not studied in detail. Historians and scholars have not made an earnest attempt at it, which may unravel yet unknown Indo-Greek historical contacts and culture. Marret mentions that there is a Jain tradition that Jain monks traveled as far west as modern Austria and there is nothing inherently improbable about this.(1)

The Greek geographer Starbo, who wrote in 1st Century B.C.E., drawing frequently from the records of Megasthesenes and Onesikritos, states that from a place in India, a king named Pandion, or according to others, Poros, sent presents and ambassadors to Agustus Caesar, accompanied by a Sophist, who committed himself to the flames at Athens, like Kalanos.(2) Nikolaos Dam Askenos adds to it, ‘At Antioch near Daphne (Antakieh), he met with ambassadors from India, who were sent to Augustus Caesar. The letter was written in Greek upon skin; the import of this was that Poros was the writer; that although he was a sovereign of six hundred kings, he nevertheless esteemed the friendship of Caesar highly. The Ambassadors were accompanied by the person, who burnt himself to death at Athens. On his tomb was this inscription- ‘Here lies Zarmanochegas (a variation of Sraman), an Indian, a native of Bargose (modern Bharoch), having immortalized himself according to his custom.’(3) These accounts rightly indicate that Sophists, the naked monks, the naked monks from the country of Chandragupt, himself a devoted Jain by faith, were sent, alongwith ambassadors and presents, to Athens. The naked monks, who practice monastic prescriptions of nudity, austerity, meditation and sallekhana rite, are primarily distinguished only in Jain monastic order, and therefore, were undoubtfully Jain ascetics.

The Greeks used the word Gymnosophist or sophist to the naked meditative ascetics, whom they saw and admired, upon their arrival in India. The term Digambar, according to Britannica Encyclopedia (4) refers to the Greek word Gymnosophist, used already by Megasthenes, applies very aptly to the Nigganths (Naked Jain monks)(5). The Digambars having continued to exist from ancient times down to the present leads to conclude that Gymnosophists, to whom the Greeks found in Western India, were Jains. Nearchos, the Chief Commander of Alexander’s fleet, gives an account of the sophists, who, according to him,were occupied in study of nature. Women studied philosophy with tehm, and all led an austere life. Kalonos was a Gymnosophist. In 326 B.C.E. in the month of November, Alexander crossed Indus and camped at Taxila(6), (Modern Islamabad in Pakistan), where he encountered naked monks.

Megasthenes identifies two distinctive kinds of philosophers in India: Brachmanes (Brahmins) and Garmanes (Sramans)(7). Of the Sramans, Megasthenes says, are ‘Hylobioi, who live in the forests and subsist on leaves and wild fruits; the kings hold communication with them by messengers, concerning the causes of things, and through them worship and supplicate the divinity. The other applies philosophy to study the nature of man; dwell in the community, not the forest and subsist upon food given and everyone (shows) hospitality. They cure diseases by diet, rather than by medical remedies.

Both practice self-denial; they are enchanters and diviners. And women study philosophy with them.(8)

The dwellers of the forest (Hylobioi) and the dwellers in the community type in Jain monasticism are called Jinkalp and Sthavirkalp respectively, governed by rules and regulations of life. Accordingly, a Jinkalp lives in the forest; his life ruled and regulated by seclusion and he cares more for his soul rather than giving sermons to enlighten others. The Sthavirkalp’s life, on the contrary, is shaped by rules and contingencies that arise due to manifold needs of living and propagating religion. Kleitarchos speaks of the philosophers called Pramnai (Buddhist), contentious and fond of arguments, as opposed to Brahmins.(9) Thus this confirms that these Sramans were naked Jain monks.

Onesikritos, who accompanied Alexander on his march to the East, says that he was sent to converse with these wise men, because Alexander had heard that they went about naked, practiced mortification of the body, and were held in heist honor; that, when invited, they did not go to other persons, but command others to come to them if they wished to participate in their exercise or their conversation.(9) He found fifteen of them, at a distance of twenty stadia from the camp of the city, attending to austerities and meditation postures. He went to one of the sophists, Kalanos, who was lying on a boulder. Onesikritos addressed him, and told him that he had been sent by the king for purpose of listening to his wisdom, and he was to give an account of it, and, if there was no objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse.(10)

Historians agree that Kalanos accompanied Alexander beyond the boundaries of India. On the way Kalanos fell seek at a place called Pasargadai. Being down with disease for the first time in his life, Kalanos put himself to death at the age of 73 years, despite the entreaties by the king. He laid down upon, and covering himself up. Was burned to death.(11)

The Indian equivalent of Greek writing of the name kalanos, is Kalyan. The accounts of monk Kalyan, as presented by the Greek writer, therefore falls into the category of Sthavirkalp, who propagate religion. Monk Kalyan thus traveled with Alexander to the west to propagate religion and bring enlightment to the people. His voluntary death, Sallekhana rite, of which there are hundreds of inscriptional and literary references in Jain religion, conclusively confirms that jain monks were not only sent to Athens by King Poros, but they also accompanied king Alexander during 300 B.C.E.

References:
1. Dr. Paul Marret, ‘Jainism and the Western World’ in The Jain, July 1988 page 47
2. A. V. William Jackson, History of India 1907, Vol. IX page 3
3. Ibid, Page 66-67
4. Britanica Encyclopedia XI edition, Vol. XV page 128
5. Ibid, Page 26
6. A. V. William Jackson, History of India 1907, Vol. IX page 48
7. Ibid, page 50-51
8. Ibid, page 64
9. Ibid, page 54
10. Ibid, page 55-56
11. Ibid, page 59-60

The author is scholar of ancient and medieval history of Jains and Jainism, and editor and publisher of Jinamanjari, a half-yearly research magazine on Jainology published from Canada
(This article is a part of the article ‘Early Traditions in the West’ published in the book ‘Canadian Studies in Jainism’ published by Jain Humanities Press, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada)

Sects and Subsects in Jainism

By Dr. Vilas Sangave

1. Rise of Sections
From the history of Jaina religion up to Mahaveera it appears that sects and sub-sects had not arisen till that time. But later on we find that various schisms arose in Jaina religion as a result of which Jainism was divided into several sects and sub-sects. There were various reason which contributed to the splitting of Jainism in small sects and sub-sect.

Increase in the Extent of Jainism
In the first place it may be mentioned that during the lifetime of Mahaveera the spread of Jainism was limited and it did not seem generally to have crossed the boundaries of kingdoms of Anga and Magadha, comprising modern Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, where Mahaveera mainly lived and concentrated his attention; but after the death of Mahaveera, his successors and followers succeeded to a large extent in popularising the religion throughout the length and breadth of India, so that it did not fail to enlist for a long period the support of kings as well as commoners. As the number of adherents to Jaina religion fast increased and as they were scattered practically in all parts of the country, the Ganadharas, that is, the religious leaders and the religious pontiffs must have found it very difficult to look after and organise their followers. Naturally, different conditions, customs, manners and ways of life prevailing in different parts of the country in different periods of time might have influenced in giving rise to various religious practices which might have ultimately resulted in creating factions among the followers of Jainism.

Interpretation of Jaina Canons
Secondly, the religious doctrines, principles and tenets of Jainism as they were enunciated and taught by Mahaveera were not committed to writing during the lifetime of Mahaveera or immediately after his death. The important fact was that the religious teachings of Mahaveera were memorised by his immediate successors and they were thus handed down by one generation to another, till they were cannonised at the council of Pataliputra in the early part of the 3rd century B.C. By this time much water had flown down the Ganges and what was cannonised was not acceptable to all, who vigorously maintained that canon did not contain the actual teachings of Mahaveera.

Again, there was the question of interpreting what had been cannonised. As time passed on, differences of opinion regarding the interpretation of many doctrines arose and those who differed established a separate school of thought and formed themselves into a sect or sub-sect.

Revolt against Jaina's Religious Authorities
Thirdly, it may be maintained that sects and sub-sects arise as a direct result of the revolts against the actions and policy of ruling priests or religious authorities including the heads of the Church. Those who are at the helm of religious affairs are likely to swerve from their prescribed path and marinating and preserving the religious practices in a manner they think proper, without taking into account the needs of the changing conditions. In both the cases natural indignation is bound to occur on the part of the elite and there should not be any surprise if this accumulated indignation and discontent took a turn in formulating and organising a separate sect. For example, Martin Luther revolted against the high-handed policy of Popes and Priests in Christian religion and founded the section of Protestants in that religion. Generally, the same thing happened in Jaina religion also.

As a result of these factors the Jaina religion which was one and undivided upto the time of Tirthankara Mahaveera and even up to the beginning of the Christian Era got divided first into the two sects, viz., Digambara and Swetambara, and later on into many subsets in each sect. This has given rise to a number of sections and sub-sections in Jainism and the process, in one form or another, is still going on.

2. The Great Schism of Jainism
The history of Jaina religion is full of references to the various schisms that had taken place from time to time and some of these schisms contributed to the rise of sects and sub-sects in Jaina religion. There is, however, no unity of opinion on the manner and nature of such schism. It is maintained that there were eight schism, of which the first was caused by Jamali during Tirthankara Mahaveera's lifetime, and the eight took place during the first century of the Christian Era, that is, after the lapse of nearly six hundred years after the nirvana of Tirthankara Mahaveera. Among these schism, the eighth schism was more important as it ultimately spilt the Jaina religion into two distinct sects of Digambara Jainas and Swetambara Jainas. In this connection it may be noted that in order to prove the antiquity of their particular sect, both the sect have put forward their own theories regarding the origin of the other sect.

According to the account of the eighth schism, known as the great schism, which is corroborated by historical evidence, the process of the split continued from the third century B.C. up to the first century of the Christian era. In the third century B.C., famous Jaina saint Srutakevali Bhadrabahu predicted a long and severe famine in the kingdom of Magadha (in modern Bihar) and with a view to avoid the terrible effects of famine Bhadrabahu, along with a body of 12,000 monks, migrated from Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha, to Shravanbelgola (in modern Karnataka state) in south India. Chandragupat Mauurya (322-298 B.C.), who was then the Emperor of Magadha and was very much devoted to Acharya Bhadrabahu, abdicated his throne in favour of his son Bindusar, joined Bhadrabahu's entourage as a monk disciple, and stayed with Bhadrabahu at Shravanbelgola. Chandragupta, the devout ascetic disciple of Bhadrabahu, lived for 12 years after the death of teacher Bhadrabahu, in about 297 B.C. and after practicing penance died according to the strict Jaina rite of sallekhana on the same hill at Sharvanabelgola. This Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta tradition is strongly supported by a large number of epigraphic and literary evidences of a very reliable nature.

When the ascetics of Bhadrabahu-sangha returned to Pataliputra after the end of twelve-year period of famine, they, to their utter surprise, notices two significant changes that had taken place during their absence, among the ascetics of Magadha under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra. In the first place the rule of nudity was relaxed and the ascetics were allowed to wear a piece of while cloth (known as Ardhaphalaka). Secondly, the sacred books were collected and edited at the council of Pataliputra specially convened for the purpose. As a result the group of returned monks did not accept the two things, introduced by the followers of Acharya Sthulabhadra, namely, the relaxation of the rule of nudity and the recession of the sacred texts, and proclaimed themselves as true Jainas. Eventually, the Jaina religion was split up into two distinct sects, viz., the Digambara (sky-clad or stark naked) and the Swetambara (White-clad).

In connection with this Great Schism it is pertinent to note that the practice of nudity, strictly observed by Tirthankara Mahaveera and the ascetic members of his angha, was later on found impracticable and discarded gradually by some sections of the Ascetic Order of the Jainas. That is why Dr. Herman Jacobi, the pioneer of Jaina studies in Germany, has made the following observation:

"It is possible that the separation of Jaina Church took place gradually, an individual development going on in both the groups living at a great distance from one another, and that they became aware of their mutual difference about the end of the first century A.D. But their difference is small in their articles of faith."

In this regard Dr. A. L. Basham, the renowned authority on Oriental Studies, has given his positive opinion as follows: "Out of this migration arose the great schism of Jainism on a point of monastic discipline. Bhadrabahu, the elder of the community, who had led the emigrants, had insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity, which Mahaveera had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of monks who had remained in the North, allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of Jainas, the Digambaras and the Swetambara. The schism did not become final until the first century A.D." (The Wonder That Was India, pp. 288-89).

Further, it is worth noting that in the beginning when the schism materialised, the differences between the two sects were not acute and did not take the form of a dogmatic and doctrinaire rigidity as is clear from the fact that the Jainas by and large agreed that nakedness was the highest ideal as it is the characteristic of a Jina. Accordingly, they adorned the nude images of Tirthankaras without any reservation. In this context it is pertinent to note that all the early images of Tirthankaras found at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh are nude. But slowly the question of clothing became important and accordingly different views and approaches were put forward in regard to various aspects and practices of the religious life. As a result with the passage of time and changed conditions, attitudes and approaches began to stiffen, doctrines to ossify and the sectarian outlook to dominate. This phenomenon is found among the other religious sects of that time. Naturally, it affected the Jaina religion also.

3. The Digambara and Swetambara sects
It is worthwhile to see what the exact differences between the Digambara and Swetambara sects of Jainism are. Literally, the monks of Digambaras are naked while those of the Swetambara wear white clothes. In fact there are no fundamental doctrinal differences between the two sects. For example the most authoritative sacred text of all Jainas is the Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati. However, there are some major as well as minor points on which the two sects are opposed to each other.

(A) Some Points of Differences
(i) Practice of Nudity
Digambaras stress the practice of nudity as an absolute pre-requisite to the mendicant's path and to the attainment of salvation. But the Swetambaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.

(ii) Liberation of Women
Digambaras believe that a women lacks the admantine body and rigid will necessary to attain monks, i.e., liberation: hence she must be reborn as a man before such an attainment is possible. But the Swetambaras hold that women are capable, in the present life time, of the same spiritual accomplishments as men.

(iii) Food for Omniscient
According to the Digambaras, once a saint becomes a kevali or kevala-jnani, that is, omniscient, he needs no morsel of food. But this view is not acceptable to the Swetambaras.

(B) Minor Points of Differences
Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners, the following are some of the minor point on which the two sects of Digambaras and Swetambaras do not agree:

(i) Embryo of Mahaveera
The Swetambaras believe that Mahaveera was born of a Ksariya lady, Trisala, though conception took place in the womb of a Brahmana lady, Devananda. The change of embryo is believed to have been effected by God Indra on the eighty-third day after conception. The Digambaras, however, dismiss the whole episode as unreliable and absurd.

(ii) Marriage of Mahaveera
The Swetambaras believe that Mahaveera married Princess Yasoda at a fairly young age and had a daughter from her by name Anojja or Priyadarshana and that Mahaveera led a full-fledged householder's life till he was thirty, when he became an ascetic. But the Digambaras deny this assertion altogether.

(iii) Tirthankara Mallinatha
The Swetambaras consider Mallinatha, the 19th Tirthankara as a female by name Malli but the Digambaras state that Mallinatha was a male.

(iv) Idols of Tirthankaras
The Swetambaras tradition depicts the idols of Tirthankaras as wearing a loin-cloth, bedecked with jewels and with glass eyes inserted in the marble. But the Digambar tradition represents the idols of Tirthankaras as nude, unadorned and with downcast eyes in the contemplative mood.

(v) Canonical Literature
The Swetambaras believe in the validity and sacredness of canonical literature, that is, the twelve angas and sutras, as they exist now, while the Digambaras hold that the original and genuine texts were lost long ago. The Digambaras also refuse to accept the achievements of the first council which met under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra and consequently the recasting of the angas.

(vi) Charitras and Puranas the Swetambaras use the term 'Charitra' and the Digambaras make use of the term 'Purana' for the biographies of the great teachers.

(vii) Food of Ascetics
The Swetambara monks collect their food from different houses while the Digambara monks take food standing and with the help of knotted upturned palms and in one house only where their sankalpa (preconceived idea) is fulfilled.

(viii) Dress of Ascetics
The Swetambara monks wear white clothes, but the Digambara monks of the ideal nirgrantha type are naked.

(ix) Possession of Ascetics
The Swetambara ascetic is allowed to have fourteen possessions including loin-cloth, shoulder-cloth, etc. But the Digambar ascetic is allow only two possessions, viz., a pichhi a peacock-feather whisk-broom) and a kamandalu (a wooden water pot).

4. The Digambara Sub-sects
The division of the Jaina religion into two sects was only the beginning of splitting the religious order into various sub-sects. Each of the two great sect, viz., the Digambara sect and the Swetambara sect, got sub-divided into different major and minor sub-sects according to the differences in a acknowledging or interpreting the religious texts and in the observance of religious practices. These major and minor sub-sects gradually sprang up for the most part on the canonical texts from time to time and due to revolt or opposition by sections of people against the established religious authorities and the traditional religious rites and rituals.

The Digambara sect, in recent centuries, has been divided into the following sub-sect;

(A) Major sub-sects:
(i) Bisapantha (ii) Terapantha and (iii) Taranapantha or samaiyapantha.

(B) Minor sub-sects:
(i) Gumanapantha (ii) Tolapantha

(1) Bisapantha
The followers of Bisapantha support the Dharma-gurus, that is, religious authorities known as Bhattarkas who are also the heads of Jaina Mathas, that is, religious monasteries. The Bisapanthis, in their temples, worship the idol of Tirthankaras and also the idols of Ksetrapala, Padmavati and other deities. They worship these idols with saffron, flowers, fruits, sweets, scented 'agara-batis', i.e., incense stick, etc. while performing these worships, the Bisapanthis sit on the ground and do not stand. They perform Aarti, i.e., waving of lights over the idol, in the temple even at night and distribute prasada, i.e., sweet things offered to the idols. The Bisapantha, according to some, is the original form of the Digambara sect and today practically all Digambara Jainas from Maharashtra, Karnataka and South India and a large number of Digambara Jaina from Rajasthan and Gujrat are the followers of Bisapantha.

(2) Terapantha
Terapantha arose in North India in the year 1683 of the Vikram Era as a revolt against the domination and conduct of the Bhattarakas, i.e., religious authorities, of the Digambara Jainas. As a result in this sub-sect, the Bhattarakas are not much respected. In their temples, the Terapnathis install the idols of Tirthankaras and not of Ksetrapala, Padmavati and other deities. Further, they worship the idols not with flowers, fruits and other green vegetables (known sachitta things), but with sacred rice celled 'Aksata', cloves, sandal, almonds, dry coconuts, dates, etc. As a rule they do not perform Aarti or distribute Prasada in their temples. Again, while worshipping they stand and do not sit.

From these differences with the Bisapanthis it is clear that the Terapanthis appear to be reformers. They are opposed to various religious practices, as according to them, these are not real Jaina , The Terapanatha had performed a valuable task or rescuing the Digambaras from the clutches of wayward Bhattarakas and hence the Terapanthis occupy a peculiar position in the Digambara Jaina community. The Terapanthis are more numerous in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

It is pertinent to note that even though the name Terapantha sub-sect appears both among the Digambara and the Swetambara sects, still the two Terapanthis are entirely different from each other. While the Digambara Terapanthis believe in nudity and idol-worship, the Swetambara Terapanthis are quite opposed to both.

(3) Taranapantha
The sub-sect Taranapantha is known after its founder Tara-Swami or Tarana-tarana-Swami (1448-1515 A.D.). This sub-sect is also called Samaiya-Pantha because its followers worship Samaya, i.e., sacred books and not the idols. Tarana-Swami died at Malharagarh, in former Gwalior State in Madhya Pradesh, and this is central place of Pilgrimage of Taranapanthis.

The Taranapanthis strongly refute idolatry but they have their own temples in which they keep their sacred books for worship. They do not offer articles like fruits and flowers at the time of worship. Beside the sacred books of Digambaras, they also worship fourteen sacred books written by their founder Tarana-Swami. Further, Taranapanthis give more importance to spiritual values and the study of sacred literature. That is why we find a complete absence of outward religious practices among them. Moreover, Tarana-Swami was firmly against the cast-distinctions and in fact threw open the doors of his sub-sect even to Muslims and low-caste people.

The three main traits of the Taranapanthis, namely, (a) the aversion to idol worship, (b) the absence of outward religious practices, and (c) the ban on caste distinctions, were evolved as a revolt against the religious beliefs and practices prevailing in the Digambara Jaina sect, and it appears that Tarana-swami might have formulated these principles under the direct influence of Islamic doctrines and the teachings of Lonkasaha, the founder of non-idolatrous Sthankavasi sub-sect of the Swetambara sect.

Taranapantha is are few in number and they are mostly confined to Bundelkhand, Malwa area of Madhya Pradesh and Khandesh area of Maharashtra.

(4) Gumanapantha
The Gumanapantha is not so important and in fact very little is known about it. It is stated that this sub-sect was started by Pandit Gumani Rama or Gumani Rai, who was a son of Pandit Todarmal, a resident of Jaipur in Rajasthan.

According to this Pantha, lighting of candles or lamps in the Jaina temples is strictly prohibited, because it regards this as a violation of the fundamental doctrine of Jaina religion, viz., non-violence. They only visit and view the image in the temples and do not make any offering to them.

This pantha became famous in the name of suddha amaya, that is pure or sacred tradition, because its followers always stressed the purity of conduct and self-discipline and strict adherence to the precepts.

Gumanapantha originated in the 18th Century A.D. and flourished mainly during that century. It was prevalent in several parts of Rajasthan, and it is found now in some areas of Rajasthan around Jaipur.

(5) Totapantha
The Totapantha came into existence as a result of differences between the Bisapantha and Terapantha sub-sects. Many sincere efforts were made to strike a compromise between the Bisa (i.e., twenty) pantha and Tera (i.e., thirteen) pantha and the outcome was Sadhesolaha (i.e., sixteen and a half) - pantha or 'Totapantha'. That is why the followers of Sadhesolaha Pantha or Totapantha believe to some extent in the doctrines of Bisapanbtha and to some extent in those of Terapantha.

The Totapanthis are extremely few in number and are found in some pockets in Madhya Pradesh.

In connection with the account of the major and minor sub-sects prevailing among the Digambara sect, it is worthwhile to note that in recent years in the Digambar sect a new major sect known as ' Kanji-pantha' consisting of followers of Kanaji Swami is being formed and is getting popular especially among the educated sections. Saint Kanaji Swami (from whom the name 'Kanaji-pantha' is derived), a Swetambara-Sthankavasi by birth, largely succeeded in popularising the old sacred texts of the great Digambar Jaina saint Acharya Kundakunda of South India. But Kanaji Swami's efforts, while interpreting Acharya Kunda's wrings, to give more prominence to nishchjaya-naya, that is realistic point of view, in preference to vyavhara-naya, that is, practical point of view, are not approved by the Digambaras in general as they consider that both the view point are of equal importance. However, the influence of Kanajipantha is steadily increasing and Sonagarh town in Gujrat and Jaipur in Rajasthan have become the centers of varied religious activates of the Kanajipanthis.

5. The Swetambara Sub-sects
Like the Digambaras sect, the Swetambara sect has also been spilt into three main sub-sect:

(i) Murtipujaka (ii) Sthanakavasi and (iii) Terapanthi

(1) Murtipujaka
The original stock of Swetambars is known as Murtipuja Swetambaras since they are the thorough worshippers of idols. They offer flowers, fruits, saffron etc., to their idols and invariably adorn them with rich clothes and jeweled ornaments.

Their ascetics cover their mouth with strips of cloth while speaking, otherwise they keep them in their hands. They stay in temples or in the specially reserved building known as upasryas. They collect food in their bowls from the sravakas or householders' houses and eat at their place of stay.

The Murtipujaka sub-sect is also known by terms like (i) Pujera (worshippers), (ii) Deravasi (temple residents), (iii) Chaitya-vasi (temple residents) and (iv) Mandira-margi (temple goers)

The Murtipujaka Swetambaras are found scattered all over India for business purposes in large urban centers, still they are concentrated mostly in Gujrat.

(2) Sthankavasi
The Sthankavasi arose not directly from the Swetambaras but as reformers of and older reforming sect, viz., the Lonka sect of Jainism. This Lonka sect was founded in about 1474 A.D. by Lonkasaha, a rich and well-read merchant of Ahemdabad. The main principle of this sect was not to practice idol-worship. Later on, some of the members of the Lonka sect disapproved of they ways of life of their ascetics, declaring that they lived less strictly than Mahaveera would have wished. A Lonka sect layman, Viraji of Surat, received initiation as Yati, i.e., an ascetic, and won great admiration on account of the strictness of his life. Many people of the Lonka sect joined this reformer and they took the name of Sthankavasis, meaning those who do not have their religious activities in temples but carry on their religious duties in places known as Sthanakas which are like prayer-halls.

The Sthankavasis are also called by terms as (a) Dhundhiya (searchers) and (b) Sadhumargis (followers of Sadhus, i.e., ascetics). Except on the crucial point of idol-worship, Sthanakavasis do not differ much from other Swetambara Jainas and hence now-a-days they invariably call themselves as Swetambara Sthankavasis.

However, there are some differences between the Sthankavasi and the Murtipujaka Swetambaras in the observance of some religious practices. The Sthankavasis do not believe in idol-worship at all. As such they do not have temples but only sthanaks, that is, prayer halls, where they carry on their religious fast, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, etc. Further, the ascetics of Sthanakavasis cover their mouth with strips of cloth for all the time and they do not use the cloth of yellow or any other colour (of course, except white). Moreover the Sthankavasis admit the authenticity of only 31 of the scriptures of Swetambaras. Furthermore, the Sthankavisis do not have faith in the places of pilgrimage and do not participate in the religious festivals of Murtipujaka Swetambaras.

The Swetambara Sthankavasis are also spread in different business centers in India but they are found mainly in Gujrat, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.

It is interesting to note that the two-idolatrous sub-sects, viz., Taranapanthis among the Digambaras and Sthankavasis among the Swetambaras, came very late in the history of the Jaina Church and to some extent it can safely be said that the Mohammedan influence on the religious mind of India was greatly responsible for their rise. In this connection Mrs. S. Stevenson observes: "If one effect of the Mohammedan conquest, however, was to drive many of the Jainas into close union with their fellow idol-worshippers in the face of iconoclasts, another effort was to drive others away from idolatry altogether. No oriental could hear a fellow oriental's passionate outcry against idolatry without doubts as to the righteousness of the practice entering his mind, Naturally enough it is in Ahemdabad, the city of Gujarat, that was most under Mohammedan influence, that we can first trace the stirring of these doubts. About 1474 A.D. the Lonka sect, the first of the non-idolatrous Jaina sects, arose and was followed by the Dhundhiya or Sthankavasi sect about 1653 A.D., dates which coincide strikingly with the Lutheran and Puritan movements in Europe." (vide Heart of Jainism, p.19)

(3) Terapanthi
The Terapanthi sub-sect is derived from the Sthankavasi section. The Terapanthi sub-sect was founded by Swami Bhikkanaji Maharaj. Swami Bhikkanaji was formerly a Svanakavasi saint and had initiation from his Guru, by name Acharya Raghunatha. Swami Bhikkanaji had differences with his Guru on several aspects of religious practices of Sthankavasi ascetics and when these took a serious turn, he founded Terapantha on the full-moon day in the month of Asadha in the year V.S. 1817. i.e., 1760 A.D.

As Acharya Bhikkanaji laid stress on the 13 religious principles, namely, (i) five Mahavratas (great vows), (ii) five samitis (regulations) and (iii) three Guptis (controls or restraints), his sub-sect was known as the Tera (meaning thirteen)-pantha sub-sect. In this connection it is interesting to note that two other interpretations have been given for the use of the term Terapntha for the sub-sect. According to one account, it is mentioned that as there were only 13 monks and 13 layman in the pantha when it was founded, it was called as Tera (meaning thirteen)-pantha. Sometimes another interpretation of the term Terapantha is given by its followers. Tera means yours and pantha means path; in other words, it means, "Oh ! Lord Mahaveera! it is Thy path".

The Terapanthis are non-idolatrous and are very finely organised under the complete direction of one Acharya, that is, religious head. In its history of little more than 200 years, the Terapantha had a succession of 9 Acharyas from the founder Acharya Bhikkanaji as the First Acharya to the present Acharya Tulasi as the 9th Acharya only has become a characteristic feature of the Terapantha and an example for emulation by other Panthas. It is noteworthy that all monks and nuns of the Terapantha scrupulously follow the orders of their Acharya, preach under his guidance and carry out all religious activities in accordance with his instructions. Further, the Terapantha regularly observes a remarkable festival known as Maryada Mahotasava. This distinctive festival is celebrated ever year on the 7th day of the bright half of the month of Magha when all ascetics and lay disciples, male and female, meet together at one predetermined place and discuss the various problems of Terapanthis.

The penance to Terapanthis is considered to be very severe. The dress of Teapanthi monks and nuns is akin to that of Sthankavasi monks and nuns. But there is a difference in the length of mumhapatti, i.e., a piece of white cloth kept on the mouth. The Terapanthis believe that idolatry does not provide deliverance and attach importance to the practice of meditation.

Further, is may be stressed that the Terapantha is known for its disciplined organisation characterised by one Acharya (i.e., religious head), one code of conduct and one line of thought. the Terapanthis are considered reformists as they emphasise simplicity in religion. For example the Terapanthis do not even construct monasteries for their monks, who inhabit a part of house which the householders build for themselves. Recently their religious head, Acharya Tulsi, had started the Anuvrat Andolana, that is, the small vow movement, which attempts to utilise the spiritual doctrines of Jainas for moral uplift of the masses in India.

The rise of Terapantha is the last big schism in the Swetambar sect and this Pantha is becoming popular. The Terapanthis are still limited in number and even though they are noticed in different cities in India, they are concentrated mainly in Bikaner, Jodhpur and Marwar areas of Rajasthan.

Minority Recognization for Jain Community

Bal Patil

Jainism is an ancient religion of India. That the genesis of the Jain religion can be traced to deepest antiquity in recorded history is now clearly acknowledged by eminent scholars. The non-Aryan origins of Jain religion are confirmed by H. T. Colebrooke in his Observations on the Sect of Jains. He observes that the Greek authors of the third century B.C. divided all philosophers into two groups- samana (Sramana) and brahmanas so greatly differentiated as they considered them belonging to different races.

Dr. N.R. Guseva of the Academy of Sciences of the erstwhile USSR, in her ethnological study of Jainism emphatically concludes from this: "Only one interpretation can be given to this and that is, in those times followers of Jainism were, in the main, representatives of the pre-Aryan population of the country. This means that there is basis to assert that the chief components of this non-Vedic religion were engendered by non-Aryan ethnical environment. (Jainism, 1971).

The principle of ahimsa (non-violence) and the prescription of strict vegetarianism are the prime and unique characteristics of Jain religion and ethics. They could not have developed in Vedic-brahmanic Aryan culture: there is ample evidence to show that meat eating was not a taboo to imigrant Aryans. But abstention from meat came naturally to the native inhabitants of India because of the climate. That the concept of ahimsa was foreign to Vedic culture is shown by the eminent Indologist Prof. W. Norman Brown in his Tagore Memorial Lectures, 1964-65, Man in the Universe:

"Though the Upanishads contain the first literary reference to the idea of rebirth and to the notion that one's action-karma determines the conditions of one's future existences, and though they arrive at the point of recognising that rebirth may occur not only in animal form but also in animal bodies, they tell us nothing about the precept of ahimsa. Yet that precept is later associated with the belief is later associated with the belief that a soul in its wandering may inhabit both kinds of forms. Ancient Brahmanical literature is conspicuously silent about ahimsa. The early Vedic texts do not even record the noun ahimsa nor know the ethical meaning which the noun later designated? Nor is an explanation of ahimsa deducible from other parts of Vedic literature. The ethical concept which it emdodies was entirely foreign to the thinking of the early Vedic Aryans, who recognised no kinship between human and animal creation, but rather ate meat and offered animals the sacrifice to the gods." (pp.53-54)

Therefore Prof. Brown concludes: "The double doctrine of ahimsa and vegetarianism has never had full and unchallenged acceptance and practice among Hindus, and should not be considered to have arisen in Brahmanical circles. It seems more probable that it originated in non-Brahmanical environment, and was promoted in historic India by the Jains and adopted by Brahmanic Hinduism." The Jain contribution in the field of ahimsa has been distinctly acknowledged by Lokmanya Tilak: "In ancient times innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifice. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic composition such as Kalidasa's Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahmanical religion goes to the share of Jainism." (Bombay Samachar, 10-12-1904) Prof . Hermann Jacobi, the eminent German Indologist said: "In conclusion, let me assert my conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent from all others; and that, therefore, it is of great importance for the study of philosophical thought and religious life in ancient India."

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan affirms that "The Bhagavata Purana endorses the view that Rishabha was the founder of Jainism. There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were worshipping Rishabhdeva, the first Tirthankara. There is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamana (Mahavira) or Parsvanatha. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirthankaras, Rishabha, Ajitanatha and Arishtanemi." (Indian Philosophy, p.287).

Tirthankara literally means one who builds a ford by which to cross the samsara. Mahavira, as senior contemporary of Buddha, lived and preached in sixth century B.C. the ancient Jain way of life characterised by Three Jewels- Ratnatraya Dharma- that is, i)Right Faith, ii) Right Knowledge and iii) Right Action. He put great emphasis on ahimsa and accepted the tractices of Yoga, Meditation (Dhyana) and Deep Meditation (samadhi). In him is found a pioneering accepatance of Yoga , both Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga.Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He did not believe that God created and controlled the whole universe. He considered the recital of Mantras a waste of time and rejected the sacrifical ceremonies. In Jainism, there is no worship of gods, goddeses or spirits. The images of Tirthankaras are worshipped in their temples.

Unlike Buddhism, Jainism did not advocate conversion to its religion and it did not spread outside the country. The very rigorousness and severity of its religious and ethical code of conduct have contributed to its resilience and survival as a minority in all parts of India. The religious life of the Jain community is substantially the same as it was two thousand and five hundred years ago. Such being the distinctly independent ethnic, religious identity of the Jain community preserved unaltered through two and half millennia it was not urprising that the Jains staked their claim for recognition as a minority. The Jain demand for minority status is almost a century old. When in British India the Viceroy took a decision in principle that the Government would give representation to "Important Minorities" in the Legislative Council, Seth Manekchand Hirachand, acting President of Bharat Varshiya Digambar Jain Maha Sabha, made an appeal to the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Minto, for the inclusion of the Jain community as an Important Minority in his petition dated 2-9-1909. The Viceroy responded positively to this petition informing that in giving representation to minorities by nomination the claim of the important Jain community will receive full consideration.

We may hearken back to the crucial importance given to minority safeguards in the Constituent Assembly Debates. Presenting the Draft Constitution to the Assembly , Dr. Ambedkar, referring to the articles on safeguards for minorities, observed: "To diehards who have developed a kind of fanaticism against minority protection I would like to say two things. One is that minorities are an explosive force which, if it erupts, can blow up the whole fabric of the State? It is for the majority to realise its duty not to discriminate against minorities"

In his Allahabad speech on 3-9-1949, Jawaharlal Nehru said: "No doubt India has a vast majority of Hindus, but they could not forget the fact there are also minorities-Moslems, Christians, Parsis, Jains. If India was understood as a 'Hindu Rashtra' it meant that the minorities were not cent per cent citizens of the country." (The Statesman, 5-9-1949)In a Memorandum by the Representatives of the Jain Community presented to the Constituent Assembly it was categorically claimed that Jainism being essentially a non-Vedic religion having distinctive social and religious customs and their own system of law, the Jain community should be treated as a minority. But despite the minority safeguards protestations by the Founding fathers of the Constitution a curious ingenious constitutional exercise of clubbing together of Sikh, Buddhist and Jain religions in the Explanation II in Article 25 of the Constitution of India relating to the Right to Freedom of Religion was done.

Explanation II states: "In sub-clause (b) of Clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jain or Buddhist religion, and the reference to Hindu religious institutions shall be construed accordingly." And sub-clause (b) of Clause 2 of Article 25 states: "providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus."

As B.Shiva Rao's classic exposition The Framing of India's Constitution: A Study shows that Article 25 relating to religious freedom and particularly its explanation II including Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs in the definition of Hindus was finalised by the Fundamental rights Sub-committee comprising of stalwarts like Dr. Ambedkar and Dr. Munshi without proper discussion. It is indeed a constitutional conundrum why the Founding fathers should have resorted to this devious means of social welfare and reform of Hindu religious institutions by a blatant invasion of the admittedly distinct Sikh, Buddhist and Jain religious identities.

Clause (b) of Article 25 and its specious Explanation II is truly a religious Pandora's box. There is no reason why the religious institutions of Sikh, Buddhist and Jain faiths should be treated on par with the Hindu religious ones to push forward Hindu social welfare and reform. It could be nothing but a surreptious attempt- and rather a clumsy one- to take away the religious freedom guaranteed by that very Article under a pretentious Hindu pretext of throwing open the Hindu religious institutions to all classes and sections of the Hindus and then make this reference applicable to Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.

A very unconvincing and clearly untenable attempt which cannot be sustained by constitutional rationalisation confirms the suspicion that the particular Clause was not discussed threadbare, nor does it appear from the Constituent Assembly Debates that the protagonists of Jains. Buddhists and Sikhs were given a fair opportunity to discuss its implications for the religious freedom guaranteed under that Article.

In this context it would be useful to review as to what the reaction of the Jain community was at the dawn of the Constitution. On 25th January, 1950, Jain delegation was led to the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and other central leaders to draw their attention to the anomalous position of the Jains under sub-clause (b) of Clause 2 of Article 25 and a petition was submitted. Jawaharlal Nehru clearly assured the delegation that the Jains are not Hindus and on 31-1-1950, his Principal Private Secretary, Mr. A. B. Ghai wrote the following letter in reply to the petition:

"This Article merely makes a definition. This definition by enforcing a specific consitutional arrangement circumscribes that rule. Likewise you will note that this mentions not only Jains but also Buddhists and Sikhs. It is clear that Buddhists are not Hindus and therefore there need be no apprehension that the Jains are designated as Hindus. There is no doubt that the Jains are a different religious community and this accepted position is in no way affected by the constitution."

The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992, came into force on May 17, 1992. It does not specify as to which religion or religious community is a minority community, nor does it lay down any criteria for so specifying. But sub-section (c) of Section 2 says "minority" for the purposes of this Act, means a community notified as such by the Central Government. In the aforesaid context a grave injustice has been done to the Jain community in as much as its legitimate constitutional status as a minority community has been denied by the Government of India Notification dated 23-10-1993 declaring Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis) as Minority Communities under the National Commission of Minorities 1992 Act.

It is pertinent to note that the Government of India Resolution No.F.8-9/93-SC/ST dated 28-7-95 of the Ministry of Human resources Development, Dept of Education, SC/St Cell, constituting a National Monitoring Committee for Minorities Education (Published in Part I, Section I of the Gazette of India) in its Memorandum of Minorities Education Cl.3.1.3, mentions that "according to 1981 Census the religious minorities constitute about 17.4% of the population of which Muslims are 11.4%, Christians 2.4%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7% and Jains 0.5%. It means that per 10,000 persons in India 8,264 are Hindus, 1,135 are Muslims, 243 are Christians, 196 Sikhs,71 Buddhists and 48 are Jains."

The National Minority Commission in consideration of the following: 1) the relevant constitutional provisions, 2)various judicial pronouncements, 3)the fundamental differences in philosophy and beliefs (theism vs. atheism principally) vis-à-vis Hinduism, and 4)the substantial number of Jain population in the country, resolved to recommend to the Government of India that the Jains deserve to be recognised as a distinct religious minority, and that, therefore, the Government of India may consider including them in the listing of "Minorities" in their Notification dt.23-10-1993. This recommendation was issued on 3-10-1994.

Even after a lapse of four years the Central Government has not acted on the recommendation. This is because of the hidden Hindutva lobby operating in a section of the bureaucracy, the Government, the Congress, the United Front and now the BJP Alliance prompted by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad's insidious propaganda that the Jains are Hindus. It is pertinent to note in this context the impact of the mendacious Hinduisation process on the Jain Census figures. Hinduism has never been a proselytising religion like Christianity and Islam but the way the Hindutva propaganda is operating that the Jains are Hindus the result is a surreptitious conversion of Jains by their misleading enumeration as Hindus in the Census. This is evident from the decennial growth rate of the Jain population from 1981 to 1991 which shows just 4% growth while the rest of the Indian population registered a growth rate of about 20 to 24 per cent.

This confirms the apprehension of the Jain community that the BJP-VHP propaganda that the Jains are Hindus is taking its demographic toll. And if this continues unabated there is grave danger of the Jain community being eliminated through such Census-engineering. It is instructive to contrast this with the violent spate of attacks against the Christian community by the Bajrang Dal and the VHP for the alleged conversion by the missionaries.

The National Minorities Commission has been reconstituted in November, 1996 under the Chairmanship of Dr.Tahir Mahmood. In its first meeting held on 17th December, 1996 the Commission has reiterated its previous recommendation that the Jain community be recognised as a minority community. As the Central Government was not inclined to take a decision even after these two clear recommendations, Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha, a premier Jain social, religious and cultural institution dedicated to the preservation and propagation of Jain values was constrained to file a writ petition in 1997 in the Bombay High court through its Convenor praying for an early decision on the Jain minority issue as recommended.

A Division Bench comprising of Justice Ashok Desai and Justice S.S. Parkar in their order on 20-10-97 directed the Central Government to take an expeditious and as early as possible decision on the issue of Jain minority recognition as recommended by the Minority Commission National. As the Central government failed to take any action on this order, the Convenor, Jain Minority Status Committee, filed another Writ Petition in August 1998. The Central Government filed a Counter-Affidavit raising mainly two contentions: one, that 11-Member Bench of the Apex Court was proposed to consider an answer as "to who in the context constitutes a minority has become of utmost significance", and two, that the National Minority Commission has directed the Central Government "to take note of various notes of dissent opposing minority status to Jains, and that the Government would better ascertain the consensus within the Jain community before taking a final decision in the matter." The Division Bench of the Bombay High Court comprising of Justice Ashok Agarwal and Justice Nijjar proceeded to dispose off the petition without giving an opportunity to the petitioner to respond to the Counter-affidavit and without going into the merits of the matter.

However, a careful reading of the Questions framed in the T.M.A. Pai Foundation case decision by the Apex Court referring the matter to an Eleven Judges' Bench makes it evident that said questions presuppose the existence of a religious or a linguistic minority and the issue before the Supreme Court, as and when it is constituted, would be to consider the scope and ambit of the rights of the minority community in one state with reference to minorities in other States, rather than to inquire into as who and in what circumstances can be declared a minority community.

As regards the dissenting notes forwarded by the National Minorities Commission to the Central government asking it to seek a consensus within the Jain community, the National Minority Commission's stand, to say the least, is preposterous and untenable. In trotting out the excuse of protests without verifying their contents, validity and relevance the Commission has thrown to the winds its constitutional and legal responsibility and its a statutory power of recommendation under the National Commission of Minorities Act, 1992. It is instructive to refer to an interview given by the Chairman of the National Minorities Commission, Dr. Mahmood, a former dean of the Faculty of Law, Delhi University, to the RSS Hindi Weekly 'Panchjanya' of 2nd March 1997 in which he said categorically: "In our Constitution the Jains are covered by the same provisions as are available to Sikhs and Buddhists. Constitution does not consider Buddhists, Jain and Sikhs as Hindus? and if our Government has declared Sikhs and Buddhists as Minorities, there is no reason whatsoever in not declaring the Jains as a Minority."

In view of this unambiguous statement by the Chairman one cannot but be shocked by the Commission's letter to the Government on the protests. The NMC did not pause to consider that it was demeaning, nay, denigrating its own raison d'etre as a statutory custodian of minority rights and interests. Underlying this letter seeking the consensus of the Jains is an abject, even unconscionable surrender of its autonomous dignity. It is a blatant surrender of its statutory obligations.

But nevertheless this inscrutable NMC stand has dangerous and far-reaching constitutional repercussions not only for its own meaningful existence, but also for the secular credentials of the State. It will definitely open a Pandora's box of veritable sectional, casteist, communal interests manipulated in an ostensibly democratic manner in a volatile political situation. It is impossible to imagine of a Government not based on constitution and law but on consensus and conscientious decisions! The interview cited above by the NMC Chairman can be pertinently contrasted with his recent interview to the STARNEWS on 12-1-1999 at 7.30 p.m. when he said that the National Minority Commission has given recognition to Hindus in the State of Jammu and Kashmir and asked the Chief Minister, Mr. Farukh Abdulla, a in a categorical letter written on that day itself to extend to them the same facilities and safeguards as are available to other recognised minorities. This is certainly questionable in the context of the official stand taken by the commission in their decision as noted in the Counter-Affidavit, because the NCM under the relevant Act can only recommend and not recognise a minority status to any group or community.

Earlier Dr. Mahmood in his briefing to the media on 25-11-98 had gone on record stating :"So far, the Government has been content with national-level minorities only. We have come out with the concept of State-level Minorities and have virtually recognised Hindus as a minority entitled to invoke out jurisdiction in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and the Union territories of Lakshadweepa and Chandigarh." (Emphasis supplied) (The Times of India, 26-11-98). This is quite an innovation not at all warranted by the National Commission Minorities Act, 1992, under which the NMC is constituted. It is incomprehensible how the Chairman can arrogate to himself such powers of suo motu recognition of any community as a minority. What was the procedure followed in this novel concept of "virtual recognition of Hindu community as a minority"? If the underlying basis Is merely a demographic count of any community being numerically less than 50 per cent that is also not definitive as per the Supreme Court opinion in re: The Kerala Education Bill (AIR 1958) The Supreme Court opined that while it was easy to say that minority meant a community which was numerically less than 50 per cent, the important question was 50 per cent of what- the entire population of India or of a state or a part thereof?

Therefore the National Minority Commission's ingenious stand must fall flat. The trouble is that Commission is adopting double standards: one in the case Of Hindus and the other in the case of Jains . As a matter of fact the Jains have an unassailable case on all available evidence and criteria: First, there is a recommendation made twice by the NMC, and second, the Jains are in a minority not only in the entire population of India, or State, but in every district or part thereof..

While the National Minority Commission has shown unseemly haste in taking cover under the dissenting notes against Jain Minority status, it did not pause for a moment to consider the propriety of how a sitting Law and Judiciary Minister, Mr. Ramakant Khalap, in the erstwhile United Front Government sworn to uphold the Constitution could climb this bandwagon of protesters?

* Bal Patil is Convenor, Jain Minority Status, Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha.

Gymnosophists | Ancient Indian Naked Ascetics

From Plutarch's Biography of Alexander

In this voyage, he took ten of the Indian philosophers prisoners, who had been most active in persuading Sabbas to revolt, and had caused the Macedonians a great deal of trouble. These men, called Gymnosophists, were reputed to be extremely ready and succinct in their answers, which he made trial of, by putting difficult questions to them, letting them know that those whose answers were not pertinent, should be put to death, of which he made the eldest of them judge. The first being asked which he thought most numerous, the dead or the living, answered, "The living, because those who are dead are not at all."

Of the second, he desired to know whether the earth or the sea produced the largest beast; who told him, "The earth, for the sea is but a part of it." His question to the third was, Which is the cunningest of beasts? "That," said he, "which men have not yet found out." He bade the fourth tell him what argument he used to Sabbas to persuade him to revolt. "No other," said he, "than that he should either live or die nobly." Of the fifth he asked, Which was eldest, night or day? The philosopher replied, "Day was eldest, by one day at least."

But perceiving Alexander not well satisfied with that account, he added, that he ought not to wonder if strange questions had as strange answers made to them. Then he went on and inquired of the next, what a man should do to be exceedingly beloved. "He must be very powerful," said he, "without making himself too much feared." The answer of the seventh to his question, how a man might become a god, was, "By doing that which was impossible for men to do." The eighth told him, "Life is stronger than death, because it supports so many miseries." And the last being asked, how long he thought it decent for a man to live, said, "Till death appeared more desirable than life."

Then Alexander turned to him whom he had made judge, and commanded him to give sentence. "All that I can determine," said he, "is, that they have every one answered worse than another." "Nay," said the king, "then you shall die first, for giving such a sentence." "Not so, O king," replied the gymnosophist, "unless you said falsely that he should die first who made the worst answer." In conclusion he gave them presents and dismissed them.

But to those who were in greatest reputation among them, and lived a private quiet life, he sent Onesicritus, one of Diogenes the Cynic's disciples, desiring them to come to him. Calanus, it is said, very arrogantly and roughly commanded him to strip himself, and hear what he said, naked, otherwise he would not speak a word to him, though he came from Jupiter himself.

But Dandamis received him with more civility, and hearing him discourse of Socrates, Pythagoras, and Diogenes, told him he thought them men of great parts, and to have erred in nothing so much as in having too great respect for the laws and customs of their country. Others say, Dandamis only asked him the reason why Alexander undertook so long a journey to come into those parts. Taxiles, however, persuaded Calanus to wait upon Alexander. His proper name was Sphines, but because he was wont to say Cale, which in the Indian tongue is a form of salutation, to those he met with anywhere, the Greeks called him Calanus. He is said to have shown Alexander an instructive emblem of government, which was this. He threw a dry shriveled hide upon the ground, and trod upon the edges of it. The skin when it was pressed in one place, still rose up in another, wheresoever he trod round about it, till he set his foot in the middle, which made all the parts lie even and quiet. The meaning of this similitude being that he ought to reside most in the middle of his empire, and not spend too much time on the borders of it.

Emperor Samprati | Jainism in Mouryan Reign

-Mahavir Sanglikar

Emperor Samprati was Great Grand Son of Chandragupt Mourya, Grandson of Emperor Ashok and son of Kunal. According to an agreement, the great empire of Ashok was divided into two parts between Samprati and his paternal cousin Dashrath. Samprati became the empire of entire western and southern part of India and ruled from Ujjain, while Dashrath ruled from Patliputra on eastern parts of India.

Samprati was a brave and peace lover emperor, who cared of his subjects a lot. Like his great grandfather, he too was staunch follower and patron of Jainism. He was disciple of the great Jain Acharya Suhasti. According to Vincent Smith, Samprati sent Jain monks and scholars to Arabsthan, Iran and Greece for spread of Jainism. He also sent Jain missionaries to Southern parts of India for this purpose. Before departure of the missionaries, Samprati used to send some spies in form of monks in the territories to clear out the routes from any threats. Because of Samprati, Jainism took an aggressive role and was spread in Central India, Deccan and Coorg in South India.

He opened food centers for the poor. He asked his feudatories to prohibit killing of animals.

His cousin Dashrath, who ruled from Patliputra, was patron of Ajivik sect.

According to many scholars, all the rock inscriptions said to be carved by Emperor Ashok doesn’t belong to Ashok, but many of them actually belong to other Mouryan emperors, including Samprati. The inscriptions having the words ‘Devanam Piyass’ are said to be inscriptions of Emperor Samprati.

Unfortunately, there are not many references to political activities of emperor Samprati. He ruled for about half a century. He won many territories in Southern India. He died in 190 B.C.E. We do not find references to any invasion on India in Samprati’s reign.

After the death of Samprati, his eldest son Shalishuk Mourya become his successor.

More research on the life of Samprati is needed.

References:
History of Jaina Monachism by S.B. Deo
Bharatiya Itihas: Ek Drishti by Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain
Jain Dharm Ka Moulik Itihas Part II by Acharya Hastimal Maharaj

Tamil Jains are from Mysore: Hampa Nagrajaiah

MYSORE (TOI): The Jains scattered across Tamil Nadu are originally from Mysore, senior writer Ham Pa Nagarajaiah said on Tuesday. Some of the manuscripts
published in TN recently have traced the origins of the community settled there to Mysore, which, he said, is being discussed in academic circles.

Speaking after inaugurating a day-long meet on Jainology hosted by the University of Mysore, Hampana stated: some 89 manuscripts have been published in TN recently of which 85 relate to Jains. According to one of the manuscripts, Jains travelled to Tamil Nadu from Mysore. The city was then known as Yermayanadu.

However, he said scholars are divided over the subject as one of the manuscripts state that the Jains in Tamil Nadu are from Orissa. Scholars are debating the issue, he said at the meet which is supported by Shravanabelagola-based National Prakrit Studies and Research Institute and Meeruts Shrutha Samvardana Sansthan.

Jainism brings peace
Speaking on Jainism, he said that it is all inclusive. According to Jain scriptures, peace and co-existence are primary, which has made areas where its influence is more, like the coastal region, peaceful. That is why Jain religion can be practiced cutting across time barriers, he stated. Referring to recent developments like the political imbroglio, violence in the high court, he said,"there is a need to preach Ahimsa mantra to them. They need darshan of Digambar seers."

Jain religious leader Gnanasagarji Maharaj graced the event. On the occasion, three V-Cs B S Sherigar (Kuvempu University), Geetha Bali (Women University) and V G Talawar (University of Mysore) were felicitated.

Talawar said the department that is operating out of Kuvempu Institute of Kannada Studies in Manasa Gangotri, the PG campus of the varsity, will get its own building in a year. The varsity has allocated Rs 50 lakh for the project and the head of the department of Jainology and Prakrit, Padma Shekar has prepared a Rs 1.30-crore project. The Jains should pitch in and help realize the dream, he added.

Mahavir Sanglikar

www.jainology.blogspot.com/

The Jain nun’s tale | Book Review

By Pradeep Sebastian

Dalrymple’s austere and exciting book on nine astonishing religious lives opens with a moving story that should kindle interest in Jainism.

It is the first mainstream account of contemporary Jainism to emerge from a widely read and admired literary journalist such as the author of The Last Mughal.

“No, no: sallekhana is not suicide,” says the young Jain nun emphatically to William Dalrymple, referring to the ritual fast to the death. “But you are still choosing to end your life,” the writer argues. A little later, she responds with a smile, saying: “You have to understand that for us death is full of excitement.”
Dalrymple first spots Prasannamati Mataji bounding past the other pilgrims on the steps of the Vindhyagiri hill in Sravanabelagola, and is struck that such a slender, beautiful woman was a Digambara mataji, the severest of all ascetics in India.

“As she climbed,” he writes, “she gently wiped each step with the fan in order to make sure she didn’t stand on, hurt or kill a single living creature on her ascent of the hill.” More than intrigued, he seeks an audience with her, and asks to tell her story.

Even to remark that her life and example is moving, radiant, awe-inspiring and holy is not to say enough about Prasannamati, her incomparable courage and compassion reflecting those of her Jain brother and sisters. Dalrymple himself is humbled, and records her story without artifice. What struck me about this first tale in Nine Lives: In Search of the Sacred in Modern India is that it is the first mainstream account of contemporary Jainism to emerge from a widely read and admired literary journalist such as the author of The Last Mughal. And this means this is the first glimpse many readers across several countries and cultures will have of this little written and talked about faith.

There’s so much on Buddhism, practically nothing on Jainism. In bookstores, if you’re lucky you’ll come across a couple of basic books on Jainism published by a Jain foundation, but nothing like the range of books and writers on Buddhism. (Innumerable biographies of the Buddha, none of Mahavira; so much is made of Emperor Ashoka’s change of heart, little of Emperor Chandragupata Maurya embracing Jainism and his atonement of a self-imposed fast to the death). For more rigorous and deep accounts of Jainism you’ll have to look to academic writing; of which there is also very little.

Which is why the “Nun’s Tale” in Nine Lives is important: it could inspire other literary journalists to explore Jainism, startle young people to examine the faith, provoke discussion among the book’s readers on its uncompromising vision of non-violence to all beings, and kindle new interest in Jainism among seekers. But most of all, I’m hoping that through Prasannamati’s life, Jainism’s ancient and deeply held dharma of not harming a single creature, great or small, will shame and move us into renouncing any kind of harm or violence to animals; especially the slaughter of animals for food, sport and fashion.

Born into wealth, she met a Jain monk at 13 and joined the sangha a year later. Her parents were shocked and thought the fervour would wear off, but realised she was serious when, at the time of beginning diksha, she sat still as her beautiful long hair was plucked one by one, until she was bald. The ritual took fours hours and was very painful, and she could not help crying. Later, as an adult monk having completed diksha, the ritual was repeated, but as required, she had to pluck each hair herself. Jain nuns travel with a companion, and she had made a dear friend in Prayogamati.

For 20 years they walked the path of the Tirthankaras. “Walking is very important to us Jains,” she observes, “The Buddha was enlightened while sitting under a tree, but our great Tirthankara, Mahavira, was enlightened while walking. We believe that walking is an important part of our tapasya.” And then, quite, suddenly, her friend becomes very ill. It was then that Prayogamti expressed her desire to embrace sallekhana, fasting till death. For the first year of the fast, in 2004, she gradually reduced her food. After a year of this, it was only a little juice and some mung dal and, every day, she ate a little less.
Usually, points out Prasannamati, sallekhana is peaceful but because of her friend’s illness it had become painful. In her last days, she completely stopped eating. “It was very peaceful at the end,” says Prasannamati. And then there came upon her a deep sadness and loneliness: for the first time in twenty years she was without a friend and companion. She wept bitterly, her guruji frowned but she could not stop herself. The day after her friend was cremated, she took off: “It was the first time as a nun I had ever walked anywhere alone.”

Sympathetic but clear ear
The reader and the author are startled when she discloses that now she too is on the path of sallekhana. Dalrymple tells her story with a sympathetic but clear ear: you sense his admiration for the nun, even as he writes that Jainism is a strange, austere and harsh religion.

The accounts of the sacred that I am always drawn most to are those by literary journalists curious about the transcendent: Peter Matthiessen and his Zen journals, Rudy Wurlitzer’s travelogue of sacred places, Winifred Gallagher’s lives of 10 spiritual geniuses, Pico Iyer’s personal history of the Dalai Lama, and Pankaj Mishra’s literary biography of the Buddha. And now Dalrymple’s austere, piercing, and exciting book on nine astonishing religious lives.

The Sindia Clan and its affiliation to Jainism

-Mahavir Sanglikar

The Sindia Clan and its affiliation to Jainism

Sindia is a famous clan of Maratha community in Maharashtra. It is known as Shinde in Maharashtra and Sindia in North India. The original name is Sind.

The Sindias originally belong to Naagvansh. Their flag bears the symbol of Kobra. According to some rock inscriptions and copper plates, their forefather was Ajaanbahu Sind. He was the son of Dharanendra of Ahichhatra. Ajaanbahu married a kadamb princess and got three sons from her. They founded the Sind Clan.

This Dharanendra was a very famous king in the period of Parshwa, the 23rd Teerthankar of Jainism. Parshwa also was a Naaganshi prince who became an ascetic. Dharanendra and his wife Padmavati were in trouble from Kamath, a sage. Parshwa helped them to escape from the trouble. Kamath was angry with Parshwa and one day made some trouble for him. This time, Dharanendra and Padmavati came to help Parshwa. This story is famous one still now in Jain community. They have given it a mythical touch, by making Dharanendra and Padmavati actual Cobras. Padmavati is worshipped as a Goddess especially by Jain women. In most of the Jain temples, idols of Dharanendra and Padmavati are seen.

The Ambaabaai or Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur was family deity of Sindias. This Mahalaxmi is nothing other than Padmavati. Later the temple was converted to Mahalaxmi temple.

The branches of this clan ruled from Karhatak (Karad in South Maharashtra), Junnar (Pune), Sindwadi (Bellary, Karnataka), Elburga (Andhra Pradesh), Chakrakot (Bastar) etc.

The rock inscription at Bhairanmatti near Bagalkot in Bijapur district of Karnatak gives genealogy of the Sindias. It starts from Sind Pulikal and ends at Sevyaras (973 C.E. to 1076 C.E.). A detailed history of this clan is given in it.

Many rock inscriptions in Karnataka and Maharashtra show Scindia clan’s affection to Jainism.

Sindia’s affiliation with Jainism is still continuing. A famous Jain ascetic of present day Adhbhut Baba is a prince from Sindia dynasty of Gwalior. Jyotiraditya Sindia, Member of Parliament and the son of late Madhavrao Sindia has publicly announced that he follow Jain principles and is a Jain. Yashodhara Raje Scindia, sister of Madharrao Scindia has wished to become a Jain nun.

You can see gient rock Jain images  and a beautiful Jain temple in Gwalior fort.