Jain Caves in Orissa

One of the earliest of Jain rock-cut shelters, the caves of Udayagiri command a unique position in
eastern India in the fields of history, rock-cut architecture, art and religion.

The records, found incised on the walls of some of these caves, furnish the supreme evidence of the existence of a powerful dynasty, the 'Chetis' (Chedis). They reveal that some time in the 1st
century B.C. or slightly earlier, the rulers of the Cheti dynasty, who called themselves
'Mahameghavahanas', came into power in Kalinga.

Of the rulers of the dynasty, only the names of 'Kharavela' and 'Kudepasiri' or 'Vakradeva', together with that of a prince, 'Vadukha', are known from the inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves, though their mutual relationship is not known.

While Kudepasiri and Vadukha are known only as the donors of two of the cells of the lower storey of Cave-9 (Manchapuri) of Udayagiri, many details are available about Kharavela from his famous inscription engraved on the brow of the rock over Cave-14 (Hathi-gumpha) of the same hill. The inscription, in seventeen lines, is largely defaced and indistinct, with the result that its full text cannot be made out and its interpretation is not always above doubt. But
the following facts seem to be well-established.

The third king of his dynasty, Kharavela was a powerful ruler. As a prince, he acquired great
proficiency in games and received good education. He was installed as 'Yuvaraja' (crown prince) when he was sixteen and succeeded to the throne when he was twenty-five. Almost immediately thereafter he launched Kalinga on an ambitious career of conquest, leading expeditions far and wide. In the second year of his rule he led his troops to the west without caring for the Satavahana king 'Satakarni' and reached the river Krishna, where he threatened the city of Asika.

In his fourth year he captured the capital of a prince named 'Vidyadhara' and subdued the 'Rashtrikas' and 'Bhojakas' in the north Deccan. Four years later, he stormed 'Gorathagiri' (Barabar hills, District Gaya) and harassed the ruler of 'Rajagriha' (Rajgir, District Nalanda). A 'Yavana' (Indo-Greek) king is said to have fled to Mathura out of fear.

In his eleventh year he destroyed the city of 'Pithuda' (Masulipatam region) and next year
threatened the rulers of 'Uttarapatha' (north India) and defeated King 'Bahasatimita' of Magadha (south Bihar). He brought back with him booty from Ariga (east Bihar) and Magadha, including a Jain-cult object (Kalinga-fina), which had been taken away long ago by 'Nanda', the ruler of Magadha. Next he snatched treasures from the 'Pandyan' king in the extreme south. Thus, the brunt of Kharavela's sword was felt throughout a large part of India.

Kharavela was as great in peace as in war. In the first year of his rule he rebuilt the gates and walls of 'Kalinganagara', his capital, which had been devastated by a cyclone. In the fifth year he enlarged a canal, said to have been excavated by a Nanda king three hundred years ago. In the 'Kumari-Parvata' (Udayagiri Khandagiri) he excavated, in the thirteenth year, caves for Jain ascetics and erected at an enormous cost, on the 'Pragbhara' in the neighbourhood of the monastic retreats, a certain structure with hundreds of stones collected from different quarries
and pillars with core of cat's eye gem. No doubt Kharavela was a ruler of great accomplishments.

In spite of his claiming an eclectic attitude by honouring all sects and repairing temples of all gods, Kharavela was undoubtedly a Jain and espoused with great zeal the cause of his faith, which appeared to have been the state religion of Kalinga and which had received a set-back not only when the Nandas of Magadha (4th century B C) carried away the 'fina' of Kalinga, probably as a trophy, but also with Buddhism gaining foothold under the Mauryan king Asoka (circa
273-36 B C) when he annexed Kalinga to his empire.

It is obvious that during the rule of the Mahameghavahanas the hills were honeycombed with
caves. In addition, Kharavela's chief queen is known to have been the donor of the upper storey of Cave-9 ('Svargapuri') of Udayagiri. It is also almost certain that the majority of the caves originated during this period. At the same time, an earlier origin of the Jain establishment on the hills is not entirely ruled out. It is also not unlikely that the Kalinga-fina removed by the Nanda king and recovered by Kharavela had its original enshrinement on the hills and was reinstalled here by Kharavela.

After the fall of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, Jainism is not known to have enjoyed royal patronage, but the religion doubtless continued to have its stronghold on the hills, despite the political vicissitudes, through which the country passed. The rise of the 'Lakulisa-Pasupata' sect, which transformed Bhubaneswar into a 'Saiva' centre and the growing influence of which was ultimately responsible for the decline of Buddhism in that city and its surroundings, hardly affected this Jain centre, whose inscriptions show that it continued to be inhabited under the
'Bhaumas' and their successors, the 'Somavamsis'.

However, during the rule of the latter, Khandagiri, called Kumaraparvata in an inscription of the fifth year of 'Udyotakesari' (11th century) in Cave-11, acquired greater prominence and a few of the old cells were converted into sanctuaries by the carving of reliefs of Tirthankaras and the Sasana-devis on the walls. This period also saw the construction of structural temples, suggested not only by the above-mentioned inscription recording the setting up of the images of twenty-four Tirthankaras, but also by the discovery of a large number of nude chlorite
images of different Tirthankaras and enormous numbers of architectural fragments lying in some areas on the hill.

The prolonged Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the 'Gangas' and their successors, the 'Gajapatis', is proved by the crude reliefs of the Tirthankaras on the walls of Cave-9 (Trisula-gumpha) of Khandagiri, which are not earlier in date than the 15th century and may be even later. Evidence regarding the cells being tenanted in this period by the monastic fraternities is, however, lacking.

The period thereafter is blank in the history of Khandagiri till the construction of the temple on the crest. Stirling, who noticed the temple in 1825, noted it as "a neat stone temple of modern construction". He does not make any mention of Jain monks living in the caves, though the place was 'frequented by the Jain or Parwar merchants of Cuttack, who assemble here in
numbers, once every year, to hold a festival of their religion'. It is thus evident that the Jain occupation of the hill was continuous, if with occasional breaks from even before the time of Kharavela down to the present day.

Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga

Line 1) Salutation to the Arhats (Arihats = lit. 'Conquerors of Enemies,' i.e., Jinas). Salutation to all the Siddhas. By illustrious Kharavela, the Aira (Aila), the Great King, the descendant of Mahameghavahana, the increaser (of the glory) of the Cheti (Chedi) dynasty, (endowed) with excellent and auspicious marks and features, possessed of virtues which have reached (the ends of) the four quarters, overlord of Kalinga,

(L. 2) for fifteen years, with a body ruddy and handsome were played youthsome sport; after that (by him who) had mastered (royal) correspondence, currency, finance, civil and religious laws (and) who had become well-versed in all (branches) of learning, for nine years (the office of) Yuvaraja (heir apparent) was administered. Having completed the twenty-fourth year, at that time, (he) who had been prosperous (vardhamana) since his infancy (?) and who (was destined) to have wide conquests as those of Vena,

(L. 3) then in the state of manhood, obtains the imperial (maharajya) coronation in the dynasty of Kalinga. As soon as he is anointed, in the first (regnal) year (he) causes repairs of the gates, the walls and the buildings (of the city), (which had been) damaged by storm; in the city of Kalinga (he) causes the erection of the embankments of the lake (called after) Khibira Rishi, (and) of (other) tanks and cisterns, (also) the restoration of all the gardens (he) causes to be

(L. 4) done at (the cost of) thirty-five-hundred-thousands, and (he) gratifies the People. And in the second year (he), disregarding Satakamini, despatches to the western regions an army strong in cavalry, elephants, infantry (nara) and chariots (ratha) and by that army having reached the Kanha-bemna, he throws the city of the Musikas into consternation. Again in the third year,

(L. 5) (he) versed in the science of the Gandharvas (i.e., music), entertains the capital with the exhibition of dapa, dancing, singing and instrumental music and by causing to be held festivities and assemblies (samajas); similarly in the fourth year, 'the Abode of Vidyadharas' built by the former Kalingan king(s), which had not been damaged before ………..................... with their coronets rendered meaningless, with their helmets (?) (bilma) cut in twain (?), and with their umbrellas and

(L. 6) bhingaras cast away, deprived of their jewels (i.e., ratana, Skt. ratna, precious objects) all the Rathikas and Bhojakas (he) causes to bow down at his feet. Now in the fifth year he brings into the capital from the road of Tansauliya the canal excavated in the year one hundred-and-three of King Nanda ................... ......... Having been (re-)anointed (he while) celebrating the Rajasuya, remits all tithes and cesses,

(L. 7) bestows many privileges (amounting to) hundreds of thousands or the City-Corporation and the Realm-Corporation. In the seventh year of his reign, his famous wife of Vajiraghara obtained the dignity of auspicious motherhood ………….Then in the eighth year, (he) with a large army having sacked Goradhagiri

(L.8) causes pressure on Rajagaha (Rajagriha). On account of the loud report of this act of valour, the Yavana (Greek) King Dimi[ta] retreated to Mathura having extricated his demoralized army and transport.… …………….(He) gives……………..with foliage

(L. 9) Kalpa (wish-fulfilling) trees, elephants, chariots with their drivers, houses, residences and rest-houses. And to make all these acceptable (he) gives at a fire sacrifice (?) exemption (from taxes) to the caste of Brahmanas. Of Arhat ..................................

(L. 10) ..................(He) causes to be built . . . . a royal residence (called) the Palace of Great Victory (Mahavijaya) at the cost of thirty-eight hundred thousands. And in the tenth year (he), following (the three-fold policy) of chastisement, alliance and conciliation sends out an expedition against Bharatavasa (and) brings about the conquest of the land (or, country) ........ and obtains jewels and precious things of the (kings) attacked.

(L.11) .................. And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King he ploughs down with a plough of asses; and (he) thoroughly breaks up the confederacy of the T[r]amira (Dramira) countries of one hundred and thirteen years, which has been a source of danger to (his) Country (Janapada). And in the twelfth year he terrifies the kings of the Utarapatha with .................. thousands of

(L.12) .................. And causing panic amongst the people of Magadha (he) drives (his) elephants into the Sugamgiya (Palace), and (he) makes the King of Magadha, Bahasatimita, bow at his feet. And (he) sets up (the image) 'the Jina of Kalinga' which had been taken away by King Nanda .................. and causes to be brought home the riches of Amga and Magadha along with the keepers of the family jewels of ....................

(L. 13) .................(He) builds excellent towers with carved interiors and creates a settlement of a hundred masons, giving them exemption from land revenue. And a wonderful and marvellous enclosure of stockade for driving in the elephants (he)...... and horses, elephants, jewels and rubies as well as numerous pearls in hundreds (he) causes to be brought here from the Pandya King.

(L. 14) .................(he) subjugates. In the thirteenth year, on the Kumari Hill where the Wheel of Conquest had been well-revolved (i.e., the religion of Jina had been preached), (he) offers respectfully royal maintenances, China clothes (silks) and white clothes to (the monks) who (by their austerities) have extinguished the round of lives, the preachers on the religious life and conduct at the Relic Memorial. By Kharavela, the illustrious, an a layman devoted to worship, is realised (the nature of) jiva and deha

(L. 15) ................ bringing about a Council of the wise ascetics and sages, from hundred (i.e., all) quarters, the monks (samanas) of good deeds and who have fully followed (the injunctions) .................. near the Relic Depository of the Arhat, on the top of the hill, ............ with stones .............. brought from many miles (yojanas) quarried from excellent mines (he builds) shelters for the Sinhapatha Queen Sindhula. ................ .........................

(L. 16) .................Patalaka(?)………(he) sets up four columns inlaid with beryl……..at the cost of twenty-five hundred thousands; (he) causes to be compiled expeditiously the (text) of the seven-fold Angas of the sixty-four (letters). He is the King of Peace, the King of Prosperity, the King of Monks (bhikshus), the King of Religion (Dharma), who has been seeing, hearing and realising blessings (kalyanas)-

(L. 17) ................ accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect, the repairer of all temples, one whose chariot and army are irresistible, one whose empire is protected by the chief of the empire (himself), descended from the family of the Royal Sage Vasu, the Great conqueror, the King, the illustrious Kharavela.