Jain Art and Architecture Photographs

List of Photographs

First Marathi Inscription Photograph

Chttorgarh Jain Temple with Kirti Stambh

Kamal Basadi: Jain Temple in Belgaum Fort

Jain Statues in Gwalior Fort

Jain Temple inside Gwalior Fort

Ranakpur Jain Temple

Conservation of Jain Monuments

BY MR. SUBHASH JAIN


The known history of India is a few thousand years old. During this long time span several religions and their philosophical thoughts have emerged. After having depth realisation of their irrespective philosophy, the ace religious leaders, preachers and philosophers have Provo gated among the masses the best of their principles for their spiritual and general well being.

It is interesting that the main doctrines of all the religions are similar in spirit but their followers have made their own interpretation according to their convenience, which have created gulf in religious though and thereby the aversion.

However, the great persons of all the religions have targeted upon spiritual and moral uplift of man. The religions have become strong medium of common harmony among the followers of the same faith, whereas the different interpretations have carried the followers of one faith distantly from the others.

Whatever may be religious differences in propagation of philosophical thoughts, for transformation into action, the man's desire to create the magnificent and memorable monuments has been alike. Such monuments attract the people of all faiths and that is why, the places of touristic importance having much attractive monuments invite the tourists from world over.

Whereas the affluent nations have the resources to protect and maintain their monuments on national level and increase their touristic importance more and more by publicity, renovation and keep, the poor nations face the misfortune of gradual deterioration of even the national importance monuments in the absence of adequate funds to maintain and protect those.
Jain religion is an oldest living religion. Its antiquity is yet undecided. The Jains believe their religion as eternal whereas the historians feel the absence of the proof. However, the existence of many monuments of pre-Christian era compels them to accept the comparative antiquity of Jain religion.

The Jain monuments, small and large, old and new, have been built in almost all parts of India. Though the Jains are decidedly a richer community of the country, but their apathy towards maintenance of all the monuments of antiquity is agonising.

All the 24 Jain Trithankaras, according to the Jains, were born in the royal, Ksatriya families. Their influence on the common masses, both by heredity and their great renunciation, was immense. Their followers, who mostly belonged to the trading community, effected various types of structures to keep the memory of their 'Istdev' everlasting. That is why the Jain monuments, throughout the length and width of the country abound in number.

All matter has certain life; decay is a natural phenomena. But it is the man's effort which can put the decay to a later period, i.e. increase the life of the monument.

It is pity that the apathy of the Jain community towards their old monuments still exists, though lesser in degree. The last two decades have seen a substantial urge in the Government and the elite people for protecting their monuments within the limits of their resources.

The fact remains that most of the old monuments of the Jains in the country, are still lacking funds through their managing committees, philanthropists and governments. To over come the grim situation and to advance further in the protection of the crumbling monuments. I have certain points to suggest:-

1. There should be a total survey of all the Jains monuments in the country by an expert team of Achaelogists, who should grade the monuments according to their present condition, viz;

(i) Which are in imminent danger of falling because of much antiquity, weather effects or public damage. This type of monuments should receive the highest attention for their renovation and proper maintenance and to save those from further. damage.

(ii) Those monuments, the decay in which is in middle stage, such monuments also need renovation as early as possible.

(iii) Those monuments where the process of deterioration has started.In the case of such monuments even minor renovation can enhance their life and the structural attraction.
Bihar and Karnataka have been the oldest seats of the Jains, according to the historians. The result has been that these two states have the oldest Jain monuments. The characteristic of the monuments of the southern region is that being carved out of comparatively harder stone, they are still in better condition, with the expectation of few, which are directly exposed to wet air and where the deterioration is there by more prominent.

The monuments in other states of India, particularly in Gyaraspur region of Madhya Pradesh and at many sites in Rajasthan are special more degraded, because of direct exposure to vagaries of weather, long neglect and constant public damage.

It is awaful that the massive 'Mahadevi' temple in Gyaraspur which can be rightly said the konark type temple and which will involve a cost of atleast several rores of rupees, if built now, is seeing its worst days, because of absolute neglect, both of the local people and the affluent Jain society. The government too has not shown any inertest in this magnificent temple, which has a fine and delicate latice work.

Several Jain icons in the temple in the standing posture are sixteen feet or above in height. The roofs of the temple are in precarious condition. Similar is the fate of a small but old Jain temple by the name of 'VAJRAMATH' standing on the road side. Several temples made of small bricks have the broken roofs. All these deserve the Jain community's priority concern.

Not only this, but many of the old Jain sites in the country have similar tale to tell.

The largest treasure of Jain icons at 'Deograh'. 'Chanderi', 'Ahar' etc. are in no way being kept well. Even most of the beautiful images which these treasure houses have, are facing neglect and are without proper display to exhibit the fine and delicate art of sculpturing .

Whereas the affluent Jains spend huge amounts on construction of new temples and holding 'panch Kalyanak Partisthas at very high expense, it is their primary duty to first protect, fully renovate and maintain their degraded structures in the country.


Article From 'Sixth World Jain Conference' ( 1995) Souvenir

Jain Icons, Caves and Temples

Satish Kumar Jain

[ Paper read at the 6th Biennial Convention of Federation of Jain Associations of America and Canada held in Stanford University (San Francisco) California, U.S.A. ]

Jainism is an independent and one of the oldest living religions of the world. According to Jainism, in the internal time span there have been cycles of 24 Tirthankars in every Avasarpani and Utsarpani division of time. The present cycle of 24 Trithankars started with the first Tirthankar Rishabhadev. It ended with the 24th Tirthankar Bhagwan Mahavir.

The 22nd Tirthankar Neminath was cousin son of Shri Krishna's uncle and is thus a historical personality. The 23rd Tirthankar Paraswanath was born at Varanasi in B.C. 877. After rigorous penances as an ascetic he attained salvation in B.C. 777 at Mt. Paraswanath (Bihar). Bhagwan Mahavir was born at Kundalpur in the republic of Vaishali (Bihar) in B.C. 599. Acharang and canonical literature give graphic description of his practicing penances. He preached his philosophy of 5 important doctrines-non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celebacy and non-accumulation of wealth in various parts of the country. He attained salvation in B.C. 527 at Pawapuri (Bihar). From the post-Tirthankar period, i.e. after Bhagwan Mahavir, there continues a tradition of learned Acharyas, who communicated to the people the great knowledge of the Trithankars.

The people had very high regard for the Tirthankars for their highly ideal life of renunciation and extreme good to the people. After them, the devotees intensely felt their physical non-existence as moral and spiritual guides, which gave rise to the tradition of symbol worship.
The symbols have been twofold: (i) Atadakar (without image of Tirthankar) and (ii) Tadakar (with image of Tirthankar).

ATADAKAR SYMBOLS
The Atadakar Jain symbols included Chaitya tree, stupas, Tri-ratna, chaitya-stambha, poorn ghat, flower wreath etc. Asta-Pratiharya and Ayagpattas were also considered as important Jain symbols. The Ayagpattas, rectangular stone-slabs, bore various Jain symbols with or without the image of Tirthankar. Those were the objects of worship. The Ayagpattas found in the excavations of Kankali-Tila Mathura of the very early centuries are important. According to Buhler the slabs for worshipping Arhatas were known as Ayagpattas. These were established before each of the four entrances of the Stupas. All these symbols were much in vogue in the early period of art.

TADAKAR SYMBOLS
With the development of art forms, iconography received considerable attention and the images of Tirthankars began to be made. In the later period the worship of Tirthankars in idolatory form became most popular.

In the early period of iconography, the Jain idols were established at little height from the surface ground in a vedika (alter) like structure. Later on, these were roofed and came to be known as Devayatans, Devalayas or Temples. With the advancement in building making the simple temple style had drastic change and larger and artistic temples began to be constructed. The rock cut caves were also effected both to serve as places of worship and as abodes of Jain ascetics for their short period wanderings.

JAIN TEMPLES
The temple making derived its inspiration from the Samavasarana of Tirthankar, in which Tirthankar had his seat in Mulgandha Kuti. Samavasarana was, therefore, taken as the model of a Jain temple. Earlier, the Jain temples had a Man-Stambha in each of the four directions, like that of the Samavasaran. Later, one Man-Stambha, in front of the main entrance of the Jain temple, continued to be built in many Jain temples of India.

Temple making is also said to have its base in the concept of existence of Sumeru and Kailasa, the inaccessible mountains, the abodes of Ishta-Dev. Since it was not possible for the devotees to reach these mountains and worship the Ishta, they thought of raising Sumeru and Kailasa like structures, where the Ishta could appear and be worshipped. These two mountains were thus the models for temple making as well as for making spires of the temples. The coins of 5th-4th century B.C. bear spire like structures. Some damaged old seals bear inscription of early forms of temples.

There are literary references of temples which existed even before 6th century B.C. in Mathura, Kampila and other places. Temple making appears to have its start from North India.

THE HISTORY OF ICONOGRAPHY
The historians and the archaeologists now agree that the pre-Vedic civilization in India has a rich heritage. The excavations carried out in Mohanjodaro (Sindh Province of Pakistan) and Harappa (Montgomari Distt. in Punjab in Pakistan) in 1922 and thereafter give evidence of the pre-Vedic civilization. According to the former Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, Sir John Marshal, in Sind and Punjab areas such people lived five thousand years back, who had a developed civilization which excelled the contemporary civilization of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The Panis or the Vratyas, adherents of Sraman culture, are believed to have also lived in western & northern India. While the Aryans entered India (C. 1500 years B.C.), they pushed many of those Dravids to the south. The Panis were expert navigators, successful businessmen, possessing knowledge and wisdom and knowing fine arts. They also spread to many parts of the world and settled there. They were idol worshippers.

Some seals obtained from the Mohanjodaro excavations have the images of ascetics in Yoga-Mudra. One of the seals with an ascetic is in Kayotsarga (Khargasan) i.e. in standing posture absorbed in meditation with his cognizance, the bull standing nearby. This is considered by many as the earliest seal depicting the first Jain Tirthankar Rishabhadev.

There is also a red stone nude torso (without head, arms and legs) found from the excavations of Harappa (Indus Valley civilization cir. G 2300-1700 B.C. or 3700-4300 years back from now), and kept in the National Museum, New Delhi. If at any time it is established as Jain torso, the Jain icon making will have its history atleast 4000 years old from now.

There is reference in the Jain texts like Avashyak Churni, Nisheeth Churni, Vasudeva Hindi, Tri-Sasti Salaka-Purush Charit that Uddayan, ruler of Sindhu-Sauvir had a sandalwood image of Bhagwan Mahavir. Made in the life time of Mahavir, it was, therefore, known as Jiwant-Swami and shows Mahavir as a Prince, with crown on his head. The ruler of Avanti (Ujjain), king Pradyot is said to have managed to obtain this image through a maid-servant by replacing the original one with a similar looking wooden image.

In their earliest form, the Jain images were of clay which were baked for longer life. Those had proportionate figure. Such clay images have been found from the excavations of Harappa, Kaushambi, Mathura, etc. As the baked clay idols were not durable, the making of stone idols came into vogue.

The earliest Jain stone idols are of Yakshas and Yakshies. Those are surprisingly not of Trithankars and are also not of artistic significance. Many of them did not have proportionate figure.

So far the known earliest Jain images are the two torsos found from Lohanipur area of Patna. These Tirthankar images were found while digging a sewer made of stone. These have no head or legs. These are exhibited in Patna Museum. Having shining polish, which is a characteristic of the Mauryan sculptures, these are considered to be of Mauryan period (B.C. 320-158). Mauryan polish is that famous technique of early craftsmen, who handled the rough material of the stone until it resembled glass in smoothness.

A Kalinga Jina (Rishabhadev image) is also mentioned in some Jain texts and the Hathigumpha 17 line inscription in Brahmi script in Udaigiri Hill, near Bhuvaneshwar. This is eulogy of King Kharwel (B.C. first century). There is mention in this earliest Jain epigraph that while conquering the Nandas of Magadha, king Kharwel of Kalinga (present Orissa) brought back the image to his capital, which had been forcibly taken to Magadha by Nandas. Some believe that the above Lohanipur bust is that very Kalinga Jina. There is however, no historically established evidence on that.

The iconography saw its rapid development in the Sake-Kusana period (1st-2nd century A.D.). Mathura was then its principal centre. Images in sitting posture of Tirthankaras Adinath, Shantinath, Munisuvratnath, Neminath, Paraswanath and Mahavir were mainly made, which did not bear symbols or cognizances. Many of the earlier Adinath images are found with hair lock on the shoulders. Besides Tirthankar images, Ayagpattas, Stupas, images of Yakshas, Yakshis, Saraswati, auspicious symbols, Chaitya-tree were also made. A special feature of the period was introduction of four faced images-Sarvatobhadrikas.

The Gupta period (4th to 6th century A.D.) and the post-Gupta period (mainly upto 10th century A.D.) had the best of iconography with the making of highly adorned images also having Tirthankar cognizances and auspicious symbols inscribed on them. Double, tripple and four faced images as also Pancha-tirthi, Tri-tirthi and Dwi-tirthi, i.e. having five, three and two Tirthankar images inscribed on the same slab or stone were also made. Making of Chaturvinshati Jain images, i.e. one stone/slab having inscribed images of the 24 Tirthankars, was also in vogue. Goddesses with two, four, six, ten and twelve arms were made. Making images of some goddesses, with arms in front and back side and of some with arms in all the four sides was a very special feature of this period. Images of Yakshas-Yakshis, Vidyadhar goddesses, Panch-Parmestins, Bharat and Bahubali were also made. The Jain images in large number in Deogarh (U.P) Chanderi, Gwalior, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) and various other places are the master-pieces of this period.

The Swetamber Jain images mainly began to be made from Gurjar-Pratihar and Kalturi periods, in the post-Gupts period.

The finest of the Jain images, highly adorned, are found in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western U.P. In south too, particularly in Karnataka, Jain colossals and other images were made. 57 feet high monolith Gommateswar (Bahubali) statue created by Chaumundrai-the Minister and Commander of the Ganga ruler Rachmall IV in 981 A.D. at Sravanabelgola is the finest example of iconography known world over. The other colossals of Bahubali are at Karkal (41'3" - 1432 A.D.), Venur (35' - 1604 A.D.), Dharmasthala (39' - 1973 A.D.) all in Karnataka, and Firozabad (35' - 1976 A.D.) in U.P. The 84 feet high monolith Adinath statue of Bawangaja (Badwani) in M.P., which has been renovated at high expense and which is about 1200 years old, is also worth mention, besides the 34 feet high highly attractive Tirthankar statue in sitting posture in Gwalior Fort. Gwalior Fort is very rich in having Jain icons, say few thousands, including 58 feet high colossal and many other colossals in standing and sitting posture. Mathura, Chanderi, Narwar, Khajuraho, Devgarh, Ahar and many other places have been important centres of Jain idol making in the past, while Jaipur (Rajasthan) and Karkal (Karnataka) are the foremost centres of the present time.

STUPAS
The stupa was an early form of structural architecture of the Jains as evidenced by the excavations of Kankali-Tila site at Mathura. As the saying goes, the earliest stupa (Temple) was made by gods during the time of 7th Tirthankar Suparswanath and was later renovated in the period of Tirthankar Parswanath. It was known as Vodvo-Stupa. Its mention has been made on the pedestal of image of Tirthankar Munisuvrat of 2nd century A.D. found in Kankali Tila excavations. Actually, even by the 2nd century A.D. this stupa had become so ancient that the facts about its origin were completely forgotton and it came to be ascribed to gods. The stupas generally had four Vedicas (Alters) for worship. Though the Jain literature abounds in references to stupas but the only extant remains are of one or more stupas in Kankali-Tila at Mathura of the centuries immediately before and after Christ. Some of the Ayagpattas found in Kankali-Tila excavations bear inscriptions of Jain stupas. Building stupas, however, seems to have lost favour with the Jains by the close of the Gupta Period.

CAVES
The Jain ascetics earlier did not enter the cities. They preferred to have short stay in forests, caves, rock-shelters, etc. outside the dwelling places. More than 200 sites in India have the existence of natural or man made Jain caves. Many of the sites in various parts of India have been visited by me, which are a splendid creation. The man made caves were mainly created for the Jain monks and for worship. The earliest among those are four caves of Mauryan period made in the middle of 3rd century B.C. for Ajivak Jain saints in Barabar Hill and Nagarjuni Hill, 12 miles south of Rajgir, two rock cut caves (twin caves) of Son Bhandar at Rajgir also of Mauryan period, and Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha at Udaigiri Hill near Bhuvaneshwar (1st century B.C.). Later, larger caves were created at Vidisha (2 Jain caves among 20 Gupta period caves), Terpur and Ellora caves in Maharashtra, and at many other places.

The tradition of cave making with the Jain images inscribed in them is found in a developed form in Sittanvasal (Tamil Nadu), Aihole and Badami Jain Caves (Karnataka) and Ellora and Terpur Jain Caves. The Ellora group of Jain caves created in 10th-11th century A.D. is indeed the finest example of cave making in India in quality of sculpture and inscriptions. The Jagannath and Indrasabha caves are fully developed forms of Jain temples having vedikas, full size images of Tirthankars, huge columns and roof and wall decorations. It is from Ellora Jain caves that the art of Jain temple making went on improving in craftsmanship.

Also in the Tamil region there are number of rock-carverns at various places which are with or without beds created for the Jain saints right from the 2nd-1st century B.C.

JAIN TEMPLES
The Jain temples do not appear to have the origin before the commencement of iconography. Temple architecture is a direct result of icon or image worship since at least the historic times. The Buddhist texts speak of the existence of Arhat-chaityas in the Vajji country and Vaisali, which had come down from pre-Buddha and so from pre-Mauryan times. From the 4th century B.C. there is direct evidence of the existence of Jain images, cave temples and structural shrines or temples. Ramnents of temples found from the excavations of Lohanipur, Sravasti and Mathura do not help in assessing the exact form of the ancient Jain temples. The earliest forms of temples were known as Yakshayatan and Yaksha-chaitya. The Jain caves which were known as cave temples are being considered different from Jain temples. The rock cut Jain caves are, however, of earlier origin. The rock cut caves have their origin in the pre-Christian era.
Earlier, the temples were simple in form. The Vedika and spire are the later additions, as is known from the temples of Mathura built in 2nd and 1st century B.C.

The temple making became popular during Mauryan and Shunga periods with constant uptrend in Shak-Satvahan period (1st-2nd century B.C.), while the images of Tirthankars began to be inscribed in various portions of the temples including the columns. Mathura, capital of Saurasena-an important city from 6th century B.C., Ahichartra, Kausambi, Kampila and Hastinapur were the principal Jain temple centres during Kushan period. As in the case of iconography, the temples, highly adorned were built in large number during Gupta period (4-6th century A.D.). After 600 A.D. (post-Gupta period), Nagar Style of temple making became popular in northern India while Dravida style was profusely accepted in the South.
In the post-Gupta period the four styles of temple making became prominent, viz. Gurjar-Pratihar, Kalturi, Chandel and Kachhapghat. The broad three classifications of temple making style are Nagar, Vesar and Dravid.

The temple making received very good impetus during the period 6th-13th century A.D. as it received considerable support of the rulers, courtiers and wealthy persons of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, some parts of U.P. and Karnataka. Best of the Jain temples were built during this period at many places including Ghanerao, Osia, Mount Abu, Ranakpur, Chittor Fort, Jaisalmer, Jhalrapatan, etc. all in Rajasthan; Gyaraspur, Vidisha and Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh; Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh; Shatrunjaya-Palitana, Girnar, Taranga, Kumbharia, all in Gujarat; Hampi (Old Vijaynagar), Hellebid, Sravanbelgola, Mudbidri in Karnataka. The Jains generally selected picturesque sights for their temples, valuing rightly the effect of environment on architecture.

Some of the very famous Jain temples in India are as under:
* Paraswanath and Adinath temples at Khajuraho (10 century A.D.)
* Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi, Dilwara-Mount Abu (1032 A.D. & 1231 A.D.)
* Adinath temple at Ranakpur (1439 A.D.)
* Neminath and other temples at Girnar (13 century)
* Adinath and other Jain temples at Shatrunjaya (10th century and after)
* Ajitnath temple, Taranga (1165 A.D.)
* Mahavir, Paraswanath and Shantinath temples at Kumbharia (11th century A.D.)
* Adinath Jain temple and Kirti Stambha at Chittor Fort (c-1200-1500 A.D.)
* Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur (late 9th century A.D.)
* Sumantinath Jain temple at Jaisalmer
* Mahavira temple at Ossia (783-92 A.D.)
* Deogarh Jain temples (cir.850 A.D.-13th century A.D.)
* Mahavir temple at Ghanerao.

Indeed the Jain community is proud of the vast and varied sculptures which were built during the last 1700 years-4th century B.C. to 13th century A.D.

Logic behind Building JainTemple Cities on Mountains

By Unknown
Why were Jainas so enthusiastic about building "Temple Cities" on the mountains? For one thing, it would be because of their worship toward mountains. From ancient times, mountain worship has been popular in India, and people liked to design temples in the image of a holy mountain as a residence of Gods. It is represented by Mt. Meru, which is said to be the center of the universe, or Mt. Kailasa ,Astapadh Tirth, which is believed to be the residence of First Tirthankar. Besides these legendary mountains, Jainas made much of going on a pilgrimage to actual holy mountains and regarded it as a pious deed. Thus they had built temples at such holy places or "tirthas" (*2) from ancient times.

For another, it was in order to escape from attacks by heathens. Ever since the attacks by Mahmud of Ghazna in the 11th century, Muslims had destroyed a lot of temples of Jainism. If we regard these attacks as religious persecution, we might be rather wide of the mark. In general, Islam had been tolerant toward other religions. However, it is usual for winners of wars to plunder the land that they have conquered by military force, and in actual terms, Muslims needed to secure places for their religious worship. Therefore they dismantled the stone temples situated in the places they had vanquished and reused the components to build new mosques.

As mosques are basically pillared halls, Jaina temples which had a lot of pillars were quite suitable. The mosques in Ajmer, Delhi, and Ahmadabad are typical examples of it. Since Islam strictly prohibits idolatry, they scraped off only engravings of idols on pillars and beams in these mosques. Nevertheless, as the basic formation and domical ceilings of Indic manner still remain, these pieces of architecture clearly show the features of the Jaina and Hindu temples.

As a result most large Jaina temples in Northern India were destroyed, so old temples no longer exist in major cities. Jainas thus chose places deep in the mountains to construct new temples in expectation that there was a small possibility of destruction. However, invasions by the Kharji Dynasty of Delhi and other Muslims had reached Mt. Shatrunjaya, and the temples had been often demolished.

It was not until the 16th century when Akbar of the Mughal Dynasty implemented a tolerant policy with other religions in India that peacetime was finally realized. The reason why each tuk had been surrounded like a stronghold was to defend itself from those attacks. ------
( from Architectural Magazine " at ", 1993 - 1994, Takeo Kamiya)

Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim mosques of North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain temples. ---Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University

Jainism as per kerala

Though there is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around Palakkad in Kerala.

Contributions of Jainism to Indian culture

By Dr. K. C. Jain

(i) Stüpas and Monasteries :
Jaina architecture is concerned withStüpas, monasteries, caves, temples and Mänastambhas. The Ävaáyaka Chürîi of Jinadäsa (C. 676 A.D.) mentions the Stüpa dedcated to the 20th Tïrthaõkara Munisuvrata at Vaiáälï, but its remains have not yet been discovered. The Stüpa of Mathura dedicated to the seventh Tïrthankara, Supärávanätha is known to have been built by the gods Devanirmita10. This shows that it was very old, and its origin was forgotten. Some ascribed it to the third century B.D. while others to the sixth century B.C. In two votive tablets, the figure of this Stüpa is found engraved. Another Jaina Stüpa of Mathura is of Kushäîa period. From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'NigaûasaVihära Dïpe11 inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The excavations 12 conducted at a site called Vaââamanu, named after Vardhamäna in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihära and Samprativihära are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name Samprati-Vihära proves tha Samprati was a historical figure. At Paharpur in Bengal was found a copper plate inscription of the fifth century A.D. which mentions the name of the Äcärya Guhanandi of Pañchastüpänvaya and Jaina Vihära (monastery) of Vaûa Gohäli. In excavation also, the remains of the monastery were discovered.

(ii) Caves : There are caves and caverns associated with Jainism in the southern Districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the third or second century B.C. engraved on them record mostly the dedication of abodes for Jaina monks. The caves on the Udaigiri and the Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa belong to the second or the first century B.C. as known from the inscription of Khäravela. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District ofAndhra Pradesh. The Son-Bhaîâära cave at Räjgôha in Bihar is assigned to the first century B.C. At Pale in Poona District of Maharashtra, there is a cave with an inscription of the first century B.C. At Pabhosa, near Allahabad, there are two caves with an inscription of the second century B.C. which records their dedication by Ashädhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kaáyapïya Arhats. At Junagarh,(Saurashtra) near Bava Phyära Maûha are a group of Jaina caves of the second century A.D. The Udayagiri cave No. 25 in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the fifth century A.D. The Bhadrabähu cave on Chandragiri hill at Shravana Belagolä is note worthy in the south. The Sittanaväsala cave in Tamilnadu belongs to the third century A.D. The Badami cave of the seventh century A.D. is also worth mentioning. There are the Jaina caves at Ahihole also. The Jaina caves namely Chotä Kailäsa, Indra Säbhä and Jagannätha Sabhä are the finest from the artistic point of view. The pillars and walls are exquisitely carved. The Jaina caves at Gwalior or the 15th century belong to theTomara period.

(iii) Temple Architecture : The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e .third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushäîa period, i.e. the second century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the Nägara, the Drävida, and the Väsara are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nägara style are cruci form plan and curvili near Áikhara and it was prevalent in the region between theHimalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dräviâa style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower, and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed.

Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage o fthe ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gangas, the Chälukyas, the Räshûrakütas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Áantaras in the South. "The Meghuti Jaina temple built in 634 A.D. during the reign of Pulakeáin II by Ravikïrti is said to be the oldest temple of Drävida style in the south. The important temple of this style is in Paûûakäla. The Jaina temples at Huvancha and Gudaunear Tirthahalli, Lakundi in Dharwad District, Jinanathapura, Halebid, Ganigitti, Tirumalalai, Tiruparuli, Kundarama,Tiruppanayura, "Mudabidri, etc. are noteworthy. Jaina temples built in Kerala region13 between ninth and eleventh centuries were of two main types - rock-cut and structural temples. Temples were also built in the Vijayanagara empire. These temples give an idea of the Drävida style of Jaina architecture of the south.

The Jaina temples of the Nägara style were built in large number in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Jaina temples of Devagarh, Gyaraspur, Badoh and Büâhï Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh belong to the Pratïhära period. The pillars, gateways and the walls of the temples are finely carved. The Mälädevï temple of Gyäraspur, which is partly rock-cut and partly structural, consists of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. The Jaina temple of Badoh with twenty-five cells was built between the ninth and twelfth century A.D. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Chandella period. These are lofty edifices without any enclosure and erected on a high platform terrace. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples specially doorways, pillar architraves and ceilings are richly carved with figures and intricate geometrical and floral designs. During theParamära period, Bhümija style became popular. The two Jaina templesof 11-12th century A.D. at Un are of this style. The carvings of these temples are of high order. At Bhojapur, near Bhopal, there are remains of the Jaina temple. The Jaina temples of Sonagiri,Muktagiri, Kundalpur and Mandu were built during the Muslim period.

In Rajasthan, the Jaina temple built in the eighth century A.D. at Osia during the reign of Vatsaräja is the oldest, and it consists of a sanctum, a closed hall and an open porch. it is famous for its carvings. The Jaina shrines at Kumbharia are noteworthy as some of them contain beautiful ceiling slabs. The two celebrated Jaina temples of Abu are the best examples not only of Jaina but Indian architecture. One dedicated to Ädinätha was built by a minister named Vimala in 1031 A.D. while the other was constructed by Tejapäla in1230 A.D. These temples are famous for the minutely carved decoration of the ceilings, pillars, doorways and niches. The Dhai din käJhoãpra seems to be originally a Jaina temple constructed by the Chauhäna ruler. Vigraharäja. The Singhïjï Kä Mandira at Sanganer belongs to the tenth century A.D. because there is an inscription of954 A.D. on the bandaraväla of the main shrine in the second hall of the temple. The Jaina temple of Áäntinätha at Jhalarapatan was built in 1046 A.D. by Säha Pïpä. The shrine and Áikhara of this temple are old. The Jaina temple of Lodorva near Jaisalmer is of the eleventh century A.D., and it's toraîadvära is elaborately carved and richly decorated. The Jaina temple of Räîakapur built in 1440 A.D. is the most complicated and extensive temple. There are twenty domes supported by about 1420 pillars and no two pillars are alike. Besides twelve in the central Áikhara, there are eighty-six cells of veryvaried form and size surrounding the interior, and all their facades more or less adorned with sculptures. The great Jaina temples of Chintamani Pärávanätha, Ôishabha, Áantinätha, Sambhavanätha andMahävïra in Jaisalmer constructed one after another in a period between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries are excellent. Profuse ornamentations in the shape of foliage, flowers birds and human figures were used in decorating every part of the pillar, arch,lintel or bracket of these temples. There are several old temples atÁatrunjaya and Girnar which throw significant light on the gradual development of art.

(iv) Mänasthambhas : The exquisite Jaina Mänastambhas are found atÁravaîa Belagolä Muâubidre and Kärkala. The Mänastambha of Devagadh is artistic. The Jaina tower known as Kïrtistambha of the 15 thcentury ar Chitor is 80 feet in height, and is composed of eight storeys. It is full of decorations.