The Early Centuries of Jainism

Paul Marett

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, so old that we cannot with certainty date its beginnings. Jain tradition tells that Mahavira twenty-forth and last of the Tirthankara or Prophets of the current cycle of the time. Some of the stories about them are truly amazing and non Jains are rarely convinced. They are credited with enormously long spans of life and gigantic size and various other miraculous attributes. Leaving aside the stories (which are valuable if regarded as edifying stories), we have some historical details about some of them. The first Tirthankara was Rsabha and there are some accounts in non-Jain records which seem to fit in with the broad details of Jain tradition. He is recorded as a king of some ability who gave up his throne to become a wandering ascetic, going around naked (a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions) and frequently scorned or attacked by the ignorant. After Rsabha, Jain tradition gives us the names and some details if the next twenty Tirthankara. They were all men except perhaps the nineteenth, Malli, who is said to have been a woman (though this is not accepted by all Jains.) The twenty? second, Neminatha or Aristanemi (both names are found) is said to have been a relative and contemporary of the Hindu God hero Krishna.

With the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, modern scholars fins themselves on stronger ground. He is recorded as the son of the king of Varanasi (Benaras), the greatest holy city in India. He renounced the worlds at the age of thirty and after a fairly brief period of meditation and austerity he attained enlightenment. Thereafter he preached his message and gathered followers around him. He died, reputedly at the age of 100, passing to his final abode of bliss as a liberated soul. This was about 250 years before the time of Mahavira: Mahavira's parents were followers of the religion of Parsva. He taught four of the five great moral precepts of Jainism, non-violence, truthfulness, non? stealing and non-acquisitiveness, omitting, for reasons which have been disputed, the vow of sexual restraint which was introduced or reintroduced by Mahavira. So with Parsva the Jain religion emerges clearly into the light of history, through darkness falls again in the period between the attainment of moksa or liberation by Parsva in the Parasanatha Hills (in Bihar) around 780 B.C.

We have looked at Mahavira's life in the first chapter. A great many people were impressed by Mahavira's personality and his teachings so that when his life on earth ended he left behind a large number of people (reputed to be as many as a third of a million) who were trying in various ways, in the vocation of Monk (sadhu) or nun (sadhvi) or as lay men (shravaka) and women (shravika), to follow the principles of Jainism. In his lifetime Mahavira appointed eleven leaders (ganadhara)among his followers. Only two of them, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman. were alive at the time of Mahavira's moksa and it was to Sudharman that the task fell of preserving and passing on the teachings of their master, and leading the community, when Mahavira was no longer with them. The order of nuns was headed by Chandana. She had been placed in this position by Mahavira: nuns have always had a important place in Jainism and it is said that the nuns under Chandana outnumbered the Jain monks of the time by more than two to one.
Mahavira and his early followers lived in north?eastern part of India, mainly in ancient kingdom of Magadh (in modern Bihar). Jain missionaries visited Kashmir and even Nepal but it was not until several centuries after Mahavira that Gujarat and the western part of India became the major center of Jainism as it is today. How ever Jainism spread southwards from Magadha into the kingdom of Kalinga (in modern Orissa) whose ruler became a convert. This king, Kharavela, lived in the second or third B.C. We learn from an inscription that he was a pious Jain and provided for monks but he appears to not to have seen military expeditions as incompatible with his religion. This area became an important center of Jainism in the earlier centuries, though we must not forget that we are speaking several hundred years after Mahavira. Much in Indian history of this period is not yet completely clear to historians and the spread of Jainism has to be priced together from scattered, and sometimes cryptic, references. However, for the first centuries it is clear that the centers of this religion were in eastern India. There seem to have been Jains in Bengal from very early times.

The teachings of Jainism made a considerable impact amongst all classes of society. There is even a story that the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya, around 300 B.C., became a Jain monk at the end of his life. Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka, ruled over an empire which included all the sub-continent except the extreme south. As his capital was in the region of Magadha he was doubtless familiar with the Jains and they are mentioned in his records (though Asoka himself was a Buddhist). However, one of Asoka's grandsons was certainly a Jain and he did a lot to further the progress of his faith.

In a religion as ancient as Jainism it is natural that interesting controversies about details of the faith emerge. Whilst Jains are united on the fundamental questions, within that unity many different sects and schools of thought coexist in a tolerant manner. These may be the followers of one revered teacher or a group placing emphasis on certain particular teachings. The important division is between the Svetambara and the Digambara sections. 'Svetambara' means 'dressed in white' and 'Digambara' means 'dressed in the sky', a reference to the fact that Digambara monks renounce all worldly possessions, including clothes, whilst the monks of the Svetambara section wear two pieces of white cloth. The Svetambara (who form probably around two?thirds of all Jains, and the very large majority of those in the United Kingdom) are found in particular in Gujarat and the neighboring areas of western India. The Digambara are strongest in south India. The origins of the split are not clear. One account says that, probably some three hundred years B.C., there was a terrible famine in Bihar. The crops failed, people were dying of starvation and this went on for twelve years. Some of the Jain monks, led by Bhadrabahu, moved southwards away from the famine area. It is said that the monks who left were more rigorous in certain ways than those who stayed behind and when, after the famine was over, they came back it was found that the two groups had drifted apart in some ways. In particular, according to this account, before this time all Jain monks went naked but those who stayed in the north had now taken to wearing a single piece of cloth to cover themselves. Other accounts place the division much later, possibly as late as the second century A.D. Quite probably it was not a sudden split but a slow process. At any rate, to this day the Svetambara and the Digambara differ on certain minor matters, not only the clothing of monks but also such questions as whether a woman can achieve moksa (the Digambara say not until she is reborn as a man), whether Mahavira was married before he gave up the world, and some other points.

In these early centuries, of course, reading and writing were not as common as they are today, and religious teachings (and indeed all other literature, history, stories and songs) were preserved in the memory of people. Mahavira's closest followers must have committed to memory the things which he said in his preachments and after he left them the responsibility of passing on the teachings fell on the new leader of the community, Sudharman, whom we have mentioned above. For nearly two centuries the collected teachings were handed down by word of mouth. It seems wonderful to us today that a man could retain in his memory the fourteen Purva texts, each of them quite a lengthy work, which made up the basic part of the sacred literature of the Jains. But the Jain monks of those early centuries lived a much simpler life than we do today, without the distractions of our complicated modern civilization. Moreover they doubtless did train their memories for the repetition of long texts. Even so it appears that memories were not infallible and only ten of the fourteen Purva texts were still known 200 years after Mahavira. They have now all been lost, though much of their teaching (which was said to go back in part to the time of Parsva) was preserved in other texts, like the twelve Anga texts, eleven of which survive to this day.

The last man who knew all the scriptures by heart was Bhadrabahu and he died 170 years after Mahavira. About that time, around 360 B.C., the Jains were concerned that the memory of the holy scriptures might get lost. It was a difficult time in parts of India with a long famine and the death or dispersal of many monks. Hence a great conference of monks was held at Pataliputra (now called Patna, in Bihar) when the contents of the sacred texts (those which had not been lost) were put in order. Not all Jains believe today that the original scriptures have survived. The Digambara in general feel that the original texts eventually disappeared from knowledge over a fairly long period of time. Some modern scholars believe that some re?editing of the texts must have taken place so that they are not exactly in the original form. Many centuries after the conference at Pataliputra another conference was held at Valabhi, around 460 A.D. when all the sacred scriptures were finally written down, the twelve Anga texts representing the oldest section, with a further thirty?four works which are recognize as rather later in time. There is no doubt that, in spite of some differences of opinion about it, the Jains still have today a collection of ancient religious literature which contains the noble teaching of Mahavira as it was followed two thousand and more years ago. For a very long time these scriptures were studied only by monks and learned men. The language in which they were compiled, called Ardhamagadhi, was once the language of ordinary people in Magadha so that the teachings of Mahavira (who preached in this language) could be understood by them. But Ardhamagadhi died out as a spoken language and only scholars could understood it (though most Jains today know at least some of the ancient prayers in the beautiful and solemn ancient tongue). In recent years, however, many of the Jain writings have been translated into modern Indian languages, as well as into English and other European languages, so that with little trouble we can obtain and read them today.We have been talking about matters which cover many, many centuries of time. Generation after generation passed, of people much like ourselves, even though they lived two thousand and more years ago. They had the same hopes and fears, the same joys and sorrows. And like Jains everywhere today they had the teachings of Mahavira to guide and support them.

Introduction to Jain Philosophy

INTRODUCTION TO JAIN PHILOSOPHY

Lord Mahavir was born in a Royal family 2,583 years ago (i.e.
year 599 B.C.) and was given the name Vardhaman by his parents.
Being son of a king, he had all worldly pleasures, comforts, and
services at his command. But at the age of thirty, discarding
all worldly entanglements, pomp and pleasures; he set out alone
in search of a solution to eliminate pains, sorrows and
sufferings of all living beings and guide them to eternal bliss
(Moksha).

Vardhaman travelled barefooted and with only one cloth to cover
his body throughout the country, mostly wandering in the
Jungles, constantly meditating and suffering all types of
hardships, for about twelve and half years. During this period,
his spiritual powers fully developed and he achieved Perfect
Enlightenment (Kevalgyan).

During these twelve and half years, he was so much calm and
peaceful against all unbearable hardships that he was given the
name Mahavir, meaning very brave and courageous,

According to Jain Religion, there are twenty four Tirthankars
and Lord Mahavir was the last and twenty fourth Tirthankar. All
these Tirthankara achieved Perfect Enlightenment and preached
ways and means to reach high level of Spiritual Perfection and
ultimately; in future Reincarnations, to reach the stage of
Perfect Enlightenment, which means Cosmic consciousness, and
Self Identification with all life, with the Universe, in the
service of the highest ideal to liberate the Soul from all
bondages of Karmic Atoms, accumulated through one's own good or
bad deeds.

Lord Mahavir also preached on the line of these predecessors the
Gospel of Universal love , emphasizing that souls of all living
beings, irrespective of their size or shape or spiritually
developed or under-developed, are equal and we should love and
respect them. He explained that from eternity, every individual
soul is in bondage of Karmic Atoms, that are accumulated by its
own good or bad deeds, Under the influence of Karma, the soul is
habituated to seek pleasures in materialistic belongings and
possessions, which are the deep rooted causes of self-centered
violent thoughts and deeds, with anger, hatred, greed and such
other vices as their by-products. These result in further
accumulating Karma.

To understand the relation of Karma with soul, following example
will suffice. Diamond is mined out from depths ranging 3000 to
5000 feet. At that time it is covered with many impurities dirt
etc, After mining, it is washed, beaten, slaved to clean all
outside impurities and then the rough stones are sent to factory
for cutting and polishing. Only after undergoing all these
processes of cleansing, cutting and polishing, diamond comes out
as a lustrous brilliant jewel, worth its full value. Same is
the case of our soul. In the present condition, it is covered
with many impurities viz. Karmic Atoms, which bar it from
exhibiting its original brilliance and luster. Like diamond,
soul should be cleaned and be free from all impurities by
gradually melting out existing Karmic Atoms and at the same time
care fully avoiding further accumulating the same.

In general routine, living beings are melting out some of the
past Karmas by enjoying or suffering the effects of past good or
bad deeds and at the same time accumulate other Karmas by good
or bad deeds in present life. Thus the soul is never completely
relieved from Karmic bondage, Lord Mahavir therefore, asked to
watch passively the effects of Karma, taking good or bad effects
as the result of good or bad deeds of the past and neither to
rejoice or feel unhappy in times of prosperity or adversity
respectively. This way old Karmas are melted out and no new
Karmas or at least very little Karmas are accumulated. If this
process continues, gradually all Karmas are melted out and in
future reincarnations, the soul will be completely liberated
from the bondage of Karma, eventually achieving Perfect
Enlightenment.

Lord Mahavir, after achieving Perfect Enlightenment, started
giving Sermons according to what he visualized through his
knowledge and for thirty years, travelled around the country,
explaining the causes of all miseries and describing in details,
how to liberate the soul from the bondages of Karma. Later all
his sermons were recorded by his learned disciples on Tadpatris
(leafy paper that was used in those days to preserve records for
future references), which are even today accepted by his
followers as authentic version of his teachings. These are
called AGAM SUTRAS and although many are lost and destroyed in
course of time, some are even today preserved in the Archieves
of Jain Libraries. These are preachings of Jina, conqueror of
vices and hence the Religion is known as Jainism and the
followers are called Jains.

To go into full details of Jainism is certainly not within the
scope of this little brochure, however hereunder we have tried
to give a comprehensive idea about Jainism.

Lord Mahavir proclaimed five main principles to achieve mental
peace and for peaceful coexistence with other living beings and
gradually release the soul from bondages of Karma, at the same
time raising it to higher spiritual perfection. These five
principles are:

1. AHIMSA: Non-Killing and Non-Violence,
2. SATYA: Truth-abstain from telling lie.
3. ASTEYA: Non-Stealing.
4. BRAHMACHARYA: Celibacy
5. APARIGRAHA: Non-Attachment and Non-Possession.

AHIMSA - Non-Killing and Non-Violence:

According to Jainism, all living beings, irrespective of their
size, shape, or different spiritual developments, are equal. No
living being has right to harm, injure or kill any other living
being. Every living being has a right to exist and it is
necessary to live with every other living being in perfect
harmony and peace. Violence of every type is and should be
completely ruled out. Mental tortures by way of harsh words and
any type of bodily injuries should also be avoided. Even
thinking evil of some one is also considered HIMSA (violence).

In known history, we have many examples of wars, massacres and
wanton murders and killings by different peoples either to usurp
some land, or wealth and even at times to propagate their faith
and beliefs. Even today we hear of huge stockpiles of arms,
armaments and destructive devices, so dangerous and capable of
destroying all life and vegetation within moments. Jainism
totally disapproves this kind of mad race of preserving
superiority at the cost of general mental peace and safety of
all living beings. Jainism professes that adherence to the
principles of Ahimsa is the only solution to avoid any calamity.
It is a fact that there is no example of Jains, having resorted
to armed warfare in the period of known history, except for
giving protection to poor and powerless from the tortures and
maltreatments of greedy and ruthless tyrants. They have never
fought for usurping land, riches or power from any subordinate
or incapable person or even from their adversaries. This is
because they believed and adhered to the principles of Ahimsa.

SATYA - Truth-abstaining from telling lie:

To speak truth and avoid telling lie is another important
principle. It is advocated by nearly all Religions. One lie
ends up in many false statements and this ultimately puts you in
jeopardy. Speaking truth raises you in high esteem with other
people and they love and respect you. A liar is always seen
with suspicious eyes, which give mental grief and loneliness.
For harmonious and peaceful - coexistence, speaking truth is
essential.

ASTEYA - Non-stealing:

In a general sense this means non-stealing. Every code of moral
conduct despises theft, which means robbing some one of his
possessions either without his knowledge or by force. In
Jainism this has wider perspective. Even while walking on road,
you come across something and for which there is no claimant
nearby, if you take it, it is theft.


BRAHMACHARYA - Celibacy :

Celibacy means abstaining from immoral conduct. Mind and body
deteriorates by waste of energy and immoral conduct. On the
other hand, stored energy helps in countering the effects of
vices viz, anger, fear, greed, passion etc, and maintains a
sound healthy body, with peaceful mind, For this principle,
Jainism has provided that for those who take to ascetic life,
discarding all worldly possessions and attachments have to
observe this principle very rigidly. But for those who are not
so advanced as to observe ascetic life are given permission to
marry and carry on worldly life for the purpose of procreation
without excessive indulgence. However they are also required to
conserve their energy and maintain radiant health so that they
may have a peaceful and tranquil mind to achieve spiritual
advancement.

APARIGRAHA - Non-Attachment and Non-Possession:

By this one is required to limit personal needs to minimum.
Importance should never be given to amassing big fortunes. More
one tries to and craves for worldly belongings and wealth, he
has to strive hard to get these, this in turn increases mental
tension and brings innumerable hardships, Once when you get
indulged in material pleasures and belongings, your craving for
these increases and your nature becomes greedy. Anger, greed,
passion are all offshoots of possessive nature and one
completely forgets the moral and spiritual values of life. With
your needs limited to minimum requirement, you will enjoy real
happiness and have a peaceful mind.

Apart from above five principles, importance is also given to
SAMYAM-Control over Self and TAPA-Fasting and forbearance.

SAMYAM (Control over Self):

Samyam is very essential to control and cool down emotions like
Anger, Hatred, Greed etc. In day-to-day life, control of speech
and conduct are very imperative. Irrational speech and immoral
conduct are conducive to many high handed and irresponsible
actions. That completely shatter, your peace of mind, resulting
in unsound health and unbalanced thoughts. All these come in
the way to Right Knowledge and thinking. Control of Speech and
Conduct saves one from all such painful experiences. Your mind
will be clear to think in right perspective and find easy and
peaceful solution to any complicated problem.

Apart from this, Jainism advises Samyam (Control) over self in
any circumstances, avoiding excessive indulgence. Adherence to
the lofty ideals of Ahimsa (Non-Violence) is also very difficult
- rather impossible, if excessive indulgence is not controlled.
Ahimsa (non-violence) and Samyam (control over excessive
indulgence) are so very closely related that if Ahimsa is
considered Soul of Religion, Samyam may be considered Breath of
Religion.


TAPA (Fasting and forbearance):

Literally Tapa means fasting. There are many variations in
observance of Fast. Some can do without any food for days,
while others may not be able to skip even one lunch. So fasting
is advocated within individual capacity. Main condition in
fasting is that one should not feel the pinch of fasting. While
fasting if you have a craving for food, it is not a fast,
Jainism says fasting is a process of cleansing the body and mind
by burning out all its wastes and impurities. For meditation
and concentration, a healthy body with a cool and tranquil mind
is a prerequisite and this is achieved by the cleansing effect
of fasting. Fasting is to stop over-eating habits and to avoid
excessive indulgence in the intake of food. At the same time,
fasting is not meant to starve. It is meant to open up vistas
of sound and radiant health and tranquil and balanced mind,
essential for Meditation and Concentration, to be practiced for
spiritual advancement,

TAPA has also another meaning. You come across many hardships
in this world. At times you are given very bad treatment. You
are rebuked with harsh words. You suffer loss of your personal
belongings and riches. In all such circumstances, it is very
common that you loose temper and think in terms of retaliation.
This further adds to your Karma, But Jainism advocates
forbearance and tolerance under such circumstances, thinking
that these are all the results of your past bad deeds and that
it is nobody's fault. Where you suffer these with calm and cool
mind, without any ill feelings towards the doers of such
malicious acts, you burn out past Karmas and no new or say very
little new Karmas are accumulated. This process of burning out
Karmas is also a kind of TAPA because you stay completely calm
during these sufferings and control your temper, which requires
immense moral and physical strength.

Lord Mahavir stressed importance of SAMYAG DARSHAN, (Right
Faith) for acquiring SAMYAG GYAN (Right Knowledge) and SAMYAG
CHARITRA (Right Conduct) for putting into practice whatever one
has learnt. We shall see in short what Lord Mahavir explained.

SAMYAG DARSHAN or Right Faith:

In the first place, one must have complete faith in the
principles of religion. There should not be any superstitious
beliefs (Mithyatva). Whatever is said in the Religion
should be thoroughly believed. Path of salvation is not easy
and there is no short cut to that. This can be achieved only by
one's own efforts, Tirthankars envisioned the path to Perfection
in their Omniscient Knowledge and by following their preachings,
perfection can be achieved. However Right Faith and full
subjugation to the principles are necessary precondition.


SAMYAG GYAN or Right Knowledge:

When you have Right Faith, your inquisitiveness and craving for
true knowledge will increase. You will follow the path shown by
the master very faithfully and then you will try to understand
the meaning of his various preaching, by referring to various
Sutras and asking questions to his disciples. With more
knowledge acquired, you will understand in course of time about
Karma and their influence over the soul. You will also know
that the soul, without the bondages of Karma, is pure, full of
radiance and has infinite strength and infinite knowledge. Soul
without the bondage of Karma has not to undergo cycles of birth
and death. Until now, you have acquired the Right knowledge.
But with further research and thinking, you will also find the
way to eliminate Karma. At this stage, your knowledge and
experience about soul in its pure form, will go beyond your
imagination and this will lead you to further progressive path.

SAMYAK CHARITRA or Right Conduct:

With right knowledge, it will be very clear to you that real
happiness is not in possessing and enjoying the worldly
belongings but in abandoning them. Until now you were passively
watching them as the consequences of your own good or bad deeds.
But now these are burdensome and hindrances in the achievement
of Eternal Bliss and Eternal Joy. You are attracted to the
Ascetic life and become a monk. From here starts the process of
further progress, which ultimately leads one to Perfect
Enlightenment, in future Reincarnations.

We shall now take up certain important features of Jainism,

THE UNIVERSE AND ITS CREATOR:

Jain Philosophy does not give credence to the theory of a
Creator of The Universe. On the contrary, it asserts that the
Universe has always existed and will always exist in exact
adherence to the laws of Cosmos. There is nothing but infinity
both in the past and in the future. Universe however does
undergo countless changes but in fact nothing is lost or
destroyed. Everything is recycled in one or the other form.
Jainism has provided concrete facts to substantiate this theory,
which can be referred in Jain Sutras.


ANEKANTVAD (Philosophy of Non-Absolutism) and SYADVAD (Theory of
Relativity).

The Priciple of Anekantvad and Syadvad are very valuable
contributions by Jainism to world thought. These teach us how
to realize truth in its varied aspects, Every substance or any
situation has many varied aspects and to arrive at truth, we
must examine the same from various different angles, An easy
example of this is that a man in relation to his father is a son
but the same person in relation to his son is a father. This
theory never discards any particular thought and at the same
time never asserts that other theories are totally wrong.

Jainism declares that in a given situation and at given time,
any thought or theory may seem to be wrong but in the context of
other situation and references the same thought or theory may
be right. So the student is required to study them from
various angles, considering every view point with cool head and
without prejudice and arrive at a right decision after very
careful thought and research, By means of Anekantvad or Syadvad,
one can easily establish unity in diversity and therefore it is
a great instrument for peaceful coexistence.

Jainism is considered very rigid and austere to practice. But
this is only to those who have never tried to understand it
thoroughly or whose approach to this religion is only
superfluous. Because of effects of Karma, that keeps our soul
in bondage, we are all habituated to enjoy and seek pleasures in
materialistic belongings. Jainism advocates complete detachment
from the worldly pleasures because it asserts that pleasures and
happiness, enjoyed from materialistic belongings, are very short
lived and they end up in a painful experience.

Happiness that finally gives painful experience is not real
happiness. Real and permanent happiness is in releasing the
soul from the bondages of Karma and relieving it from cycle of
births & deaths. This could be achieved only by gradually
making a practice of discarding the worldly possessions. As we
are all surrounded by and are enjoying worldly pleasures, at
first sight, to discard these seems very difficult and painful
and we consider Jainism as rigid and austere. But once you get
trained with this ideal, happiness and blissful experience, that
is derived from this, will make you forget that Jainism is hard
and rigid.

Jainism has laid down moral code of behavior for practice in day
to day life. It teaches to live in harmony with every one. In
this war torn world of conflicting thoughts, peaceful
coexistence is very important and Jainism stresses this point.
Oppression or coercion are completely ruled out in Jainism.


Lord Mahavir and Lord Buddha were born and lived around the same
period and preachings of both these great saints were based on
nearly same principles of discarding material pleasures and
belongings and live austere life to liberate the soul from
bondages of Karma. Concept of real happiness was quite
different according to these two great religious leaders and
therefore they laid great stress on ascetic way of life.
Although there existed some differences of thoughts, both
strongly advocated Principles of Ahimsa and Universal Love,
which are even today, in this world of conflicting ideals,
equally good for man kind and living beings in general.

Principles of Jainism, if properly understood in their right
perspective and faithfully adhered to, will bring contentment
and inner happiness and joy in the present life and elevate the
soul in future reincarnations to a higher spiritual level,
achieving Perfect Enlightenment, reaching its final destination
of Eternal Bliss, ending all cycles of Birth & Deaths.

Remembering Mahavira, Apostle of Ahimsa

IN most western style histories of religions, as well as in popular perception, Mahavira is generally regarded as being the founder of Jainism in much the same way as Jesus is regarded as the founder of Christianity. The Jain tradition, however, puts Mahavira in perspective as one of a chain of teachers, one among a galaxy of deified men, in fact the last of the twenty four Tirthankaras, ``Ford makers across the stream of existence''. Tradition saw these ford-makers appear in succession to activate the three Jewels, the Jain teachings of Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Practice. And they founded a community of ascetics and lay followers to serve as a spiritual ford (Tirtha) for human beings over the ocean of rebirth.

From Rishabadeva to Parsvanatha to Mahavira, these Tirthankaras were considered to be the Jina, ``the conqueror'', from which the Sanskrit word Jaina is itself derived, an epithet given to this line of human teachers who taught the true doctrine of non-violence. Mahavira, ``the Great Hero'', was in some ways the culminating fulfilment of this chain, in his search and acquisition of perfect knowledge, embodied in the great renunciation and austerities of his life.

After his birth consecration, which tradition suggests was carried out by Indra on Mount Meru, he was given the name Vardhamana which meant ``increasing'', because his family's prosperity increased after his birth. Tradition further records that Mahavira married Yashoda and had a daughter called Priyadarshana, but he renounced his family life on his thirtieth birthday. It is also said that he left his home at the beginning of winter, which is suggestive of his inclination towards severe asceticism. Thirteen months later he abandoned his clothing and began to wander as a naked (Digambara) monk, considered to be the first major shift in the evolution of the Jain Canon of Parsvanatha which had allowed clothing (Svetambara).

There is a beautiful passage in the ``Acharanga'', the ancient Svetambara text, which describes how Mahavira's thought matured in his twelve years of austerities. He attributed life (Jiva) not only to animals and plants, but to material objects like earth and water, assumed the real cause of worldly misery to be Karma, engendered by indulgence in sensual pleasure, and the essential misery of life to be due to the needless cycle of birth and death. His own behaviour furnished an example to be followed by the monks in their religious life. Jain tradition tells us that Mahavira was born with the three types of knowledge, acquired the fourth at the beginning of his monkhood, and achieved omniscience under a Sala tree at the end of twelve years of austerity, on the bank of the river Rajupalika not far from the village Jrimbhikagrama in modern-day Bihar. Henceforth he entered on his career as a religious teacher.

The later Jaina metaphysics of ``Syadvada'' was a philosophical elaboration of the tremendous speculative thought of Mahavira. His ability to discuss matters beyond the limits of normal human experience contrast markedly with the Buddha who refused to engage in metaphysical speculation not conducive to salvation. Vividly described in the Vyakhyaprajnapti, the `Exposition of Explanations', another Jaina scriptural text, this represents for the Jains, a guarantee of the truth of their religions message, for it is only the omniscient person who can know and see what lies beneath reality and as a result teach the correct spiritual path.

At the heart of Mahavira's ethical teachings are the five great vows of abstaining from killing, abstaining from lying, rejection of theft, brahmacharya and renunciation of possessions. Taken up in order to bring about a state of internal purification, the vows actually all develop from the first, the renunciation of violence, ahimsa, the principle which inspired and was embodied in the character of Mahatma Gandhi centuries later. There was a common narrative theme in Jain literature relating to the monk who refuses to tell a hunter the whereabouts of an animal being pursued and as a consequence endures torture in silence rather than reveal the truth.

Mahavira's entire life was saturated with the conviction that he had a cosmic mission to perform. His 2600th Birth Jayanti is a befitting occasion to remember this great spiritual legacy and to resurrect the cardinal principles of right faith, right knowledge, right practice and Ahimsa in these times of turbulence and strife.

Lord Mahavira: An Evaluation

By Dr. S. B. Deo

It is well over two and a half thousand years that the personality of Lord Mahavira illumined the religious horizon of India. And yet with the passage of several centuries, the influence of his teachings, instead of waning, as happened in the case of several others, is on the increase. His name still remains a revered memory and an envigorating spiritual force to thousands of people. What then, is the secret of this everlasting popularity?

The answer lies in the review of the work done by the Lord during his lifetime. With his towering personality, his struggles against various hardships and hence his wisdom arisen out of his own experiences coupled with the zeal of a reformer and the patience of a missionary, he could rise to the occasion.

The two hundred and fifty years which are supposed to have elapsed between Parshvanatha and Mahavira possibly saw, as evidenced by the Sutrakritanga, the rise of numerous sects and subsects loosely grouped into several monastic communities. The ritualistic practices in Brahmanism were again coming up to the forefront. The ideas about the superiority by birth and the privileged position of the priestly class were gaining ground. The commanding personality of Parshvanatha was no more on the scene. Against such a chaotic background Mahavira had to work.

He immediately grasped the situation and had the courage to declare-
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The external appearances are no test. What is really required is the mental purity and the behavior which would lead to such mental purity and the consequent equanimity. Therefore,
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Otherwise fake ascetics would take the field. Hence the real brahmin should be-
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It is the penance and celibacy that make a real brahmin. It is the ideal behavior which implies non-attachment towards worldly matters that idealizes a person.
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Once this emphasis on actual behavior, rather than mere sermons on it, was laid bare before the then somewhat demoralized society, Mahavira led this attack on the caste system. He had the courage to declare that-
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It is the Karman and not the birth that determines the social status of a person. These ideas were revolutionary ideas indeed! And the receptive intelligent ideological elements in Brahmanism welcomed these ideas. It is significant to note that the ganadharas of Lord Mahavira were brahmins!
And yet more significant reformist aspect of Mahavira’s life is that he did not simply point the faults of others, and rest content. With the sweeping grasp of a real reformist, he expanded the chaujjama dhamma of Parshvanatha into the panchajama dhamma. The addition of the vow of celibacy to the fourfold dharma of Parshvanatha has been explained in the Uttaradhyayana as follows:
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Whatever this explanation might mean, Dr. Jacobi rightly points out that there might have been decay in the morals of the monastic order during the period intervening Parshva and Mahavira. Therefore he thought it fit to put the Jaina church first in order and whatever was helpful for that he advocated boldly, for celibacy was essential to mental purity. Therefore he said-
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For out of sex, attachment comes and attachment indeed is the worst possession which a nirgrantha shall never think of.
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What is, however, still more important is that Mahavira showed the timely courage to emphasize this most important aspect of monastic life.
So far we have seen how Lord Mahavira denounced the caste system and at the same time set right the Jaina monastic order. He kept the doors of his church open to all deserving persons and thus became pioneer in the field of spiritual democracy.

This spiritual democracy was applicable to all irrespective of caste or class. Therefore, besides persons belonging to the kshatriyas, Brahmans or vaishyas, even high dignitaries like kings, queens and princes, became the disciples of Mahavira. Kings like Seniya, Pajjoya, Udayana, queens like Pabhavai, Migavai and others became his devotees. Thus it goes to the credit of Mahavira that he channelled the political personalities of his times into the more ennobling field of spiritualism.

In conveying the principles of his system to the people, Lord Mahavira had a unique system. He always preferred to preach to the massed in their own language. To his disciples he never prevented them from asking difficulties. The whole of the Bhagavati Sutra is a remarkable embodiment of the remarkable relation between an inquisitive disciple and a guru who was ever willing to satisfy intelligently his pupils. Clear-cut in his thoughts, Lord Mahavira was also clear-cut in his expressions as well. Thus he was an ideal guru. With this essential quality of a spiritual leader, he could, as given in the Kalpasutra, organize around him an astounding number of followers.

It is therefore due to these rare qualities of an ideal reformer, an able organizer, a patronizing guru, a convincing debator, a zealous missionary and an upholder of the equality of all human beings, that the name of Lord Mahavira still remains and shall ever remain a cherished inspiration to humanity at large.