By Mr. Surendra Pal
As is well known, the Jains were mostly concentrated in Rajasthan and Gujarat though their pockets existed almost throughout the country besides some places in western India and south India.
A work of the fifteenth century shows that the members of Jain community were also to be found in Malwa, in Sindh, Haryana, and the Punjab. We also learn that between Samvat 1475 and Samvat 1515 Jinabhadra Suria saint of Tapagachcha branch of Svetambara sect took up the arduous task of transferring Jain works written on palm-leaves to paper and established grantha bhandar or depositing center of books in Jaisalmer, Jawalpur, Deogiri (Daultabad in Maharashtra), Ahipur and patan. There is also a mention of such depositories in Mandapdurg or Manduin Malwa and Cambay in Gujarat.
In Gujarat and Rajasthan Jain were basically traders though in Rajasthan some of them also occupied important official positions such as the family of Bhargrmal Kawariya of Mewar whose members from the time of Rana Sanga onwards served Mewar as ministers and included such illustrious ministers as Tarachand, Bhema Shah, Jiwa Shah etc. Similarly, the Muhnot family was associated with the house of Jodhpur and provided several ministers in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, the most famous of them being Muhnot Nainasi, the writer of Muhnot Nainasi ra Khyat.
Their close connection with the ruling chiefs in Rajasthan and Gujarat facilitated quick and smooth integration of the Jain in the Mughal administrative system after these chiefs decided to cooperate with the Mughals in the time of Akbar. Their trust in the new policy is evident from their diffusion all over the Mughal empire under Akbar and his successors.
Akbar's policy helped to create conditions in which Jain traders began to migrate to the different part of north India from Rajasthan and Gujarat. This became possible because of the combination of a number of factors. First, by conquering the whole of north of India Akbar established a uniform system of government, a single fiscal and customs policy and basically one type of currency. Roads linking important trade and producing centers of Gujarat and Rajasthan such as Surat, Ahmedabad, Ajmer,Bayana etc. to Agra were built. Roads now connected Agra with Labore and halting places along the roads were provided. At the same time comparative security of persons and property was established which made long distance travel and transport of goods more safe and convenient. Akbar's policy of conquest had helped to forge one political unit out of northern and western India which created suitable conditions for conducting economic activities over a much wider region.
While these measures had created the much needed environment, the real breakthrough came after Akbar implemented his Rajput policy and instead of subjugating the Rajput chiefs and incorporating their kingdoms converted them into the allies and vassals of the Mughal empire, sometimes even by entering into matrimonial relations.
Many of these top Rajput commanders and administrators carried with them their advisers from their homeland to assist them in the task of administration. Among these some were Jains. Man Singh, while he was posted as the governor of Bengal with its headquarters at Rajmahal in Bihar, had with him Mahamatya Nanu Godha a Jain who served him for a long time and then returned carrying immense riches. Nanu Godha is reputed to be the most celebrated Jain personality among the Khandelwals in the seventeenth century. He is reputed to have constructed eighty temples in Bengal (by Bengal is meant both the present day Bihar and Bengal). He owned seventy-two elephants and his wealth was unparalleled..
The services of these Jains were also needed for arranging supplies to the armies led by the Rajput commanders in different parts of empire during the reign of Akbar. Personal knowledge of the different parts of the empire thus obtained helped the Jains to make up their minds about moving out of Rajasthan to earn a livelihood. Therefore, Akbar's Rajput policy not only led to the migration of Rajputs but also of the Jains to the different parts of the Mughal empire.
As is well known, Akbar by laying down that the land revenue should be paid in cash rather than in kind gave a boost to commercialization of agriculture as peasants become interested in producing cash crops which commanded a ready sale and fetched higher prices, at least on a part of their landholdings. This measure intensified rural-urban trade monetization of economy and was an important factor in promoting inland trade during this period.
The Jain community which was disperssed over this region took advantage of this opportunity for they had the necessary expertise and probably more important than this, though located in different places they remained in contact with each other through ties of family, friendship, occupation and religion. The members of the community could therefore, operate all over the region with greater confidence and better knowledge of the prevailing economic and political environment.
The family ties of Jaina covered a number of places as is evident from the fact that Banarsida's grandfather Muldas was attached to the ruler of Narwar near Gwalior while his maternal grandfather Madna Sing Chinaliya was a famous jeweller of Jaunpur. His father Khargsen had served in Bengal , Allahbad and Jaunpur. Banarasidas settled in Agra.
Another example of existence of family ties among Jains residing in distant cities is furnished by Hemraj Patani, a resident of Patna who was married to a niece of Seth Hiranand Mukim of Agra. In Bengal Diwan Dhanna Rai had under him five hundreds Shrimal Vaishyas who were employed in the task of revenue collection.
It is against this background that we must view the visit of Jain saints to the court of Akbar. It was reflection of growing interest of their lay followers in the continuously widening are of economic activities, made possible by the emergence of the new political entity. Akbar, of course, invited them to visit him following his desire to bring a about a rapprochement among the major religious communities of the country. Buy the growing involvement of their coreligionist in the Mughal polity and economy must have been an important motivation for them in seeking and maintaining good relations with the Mughal emperor. Thus from Padmasundar who appears to have been the first Jain monk to meet Akbar we have a continuous flow of distinguished Jain saints to the court of Akbar and his successor Jahangir. Of course, the most famous Jain visitor to Akbar was Hiravijaya Suri who met him in Samvat 1639.
Akbar was so much impressed by Hiravijaya Suri that he conferred upon him the title of "Jagad Guru" or "the preceptor of the world." The intention won over the confidence of the community. When Hiravijaya Suri quitted the court in 1587, he left behind his brilliant disciple Santichandra, the author of "Kriparasa-kosa" When he left the royal court in 1587 he asked Bhanuchandra and his disciple Siddhichandra to stay back. They lived even after the death of Akbar at the court and Siddhichandra who had also learnt Persian, wrote "Bhanuchandra Gani Charit" a biography of his master.
The faith of the community in Akbar and the Mughal polity was strengthened when the ruler issued firmans prohibiting the killing of animals on certain days sacred to the Jains. Similarly, they were permitted to renovate their temples and allowed to go on pilgrimage in large groups. The time span of eleven lunar years separating the two firmans of Akbar and also the continued stay of Jain teachers at the Mughal Court point to the continuing patronage of the Jains by the Mughal emperor.
We find a rich Jain trader of Agra Seth Hiranand Mukim, who later on became the personal jeweller of Emperor Jahangir leading a party of Jain pilgrims to Sammed Shikhar Bihar. While it was not unusual for Jains to go on pilgrimage to holy places in Rajasthan and Gujarat, it was certainly something new that a big party of Jains could go from Agra to Sammed Shikhar and the state extended protection to the party.
The practice of large parties of pilgrims visiting eastern India helped in integrating Jains residing in different parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. This change should not be overlooked as earlier the Jains generally travelled to their holy places mostly located in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Eventually, this environment promoted inter-regional ties and trade.
Akbar's policy of religious toleration resulted in increases mobility of Jain saints and their entourage, which further reinforced the bonds among the members of the community. They could profess and practice their religion publicly. The new-found mobility enabled them to forge linkages at all levels of administration which furthered the commercial activities of their o-religionists as officials were now afraid to harass them.
Akbar's policies affected the Jain community in several other ways.
The good relations that developed between the Jain religious leaders and the Mughal rulers now extended to the members of the community at large. A number of them held positions in the Mughal administration and could influence the state policies and help their co-religionists whenever they felt harassed by the activities of the local Mughal officials. Also, they were now emboldened to settle down in groups in places where they could profitably follow their traditional vocation of trade.
Furthermore, the royal patronage helped the community to forget temporarily their dissensions and cooperate with each other in secular and temporal matters. Thus in March 1956, Jains from Punjab, Bengal, Rajputana and Gujarat forgetting their differences assembled on the Satrunjay hills to pay homage to their deities. This was probably and unforeseen and unanticipated consequence of the harmony developing between the Mughal ruler and the Jain community.
In the time of Akbar Agra emerged as an entrepot and was probably the greatest trade mart inside the country. We have substantial numbers of Jains residing in Agra in the time of Akbar. Many of them were fairly rich. They occupied official positions as well as carried on trade.
Karma Chand was a minister of Akbar, enjoying his trust. His biographer claims that for some time he prohibited fishing in Jhelum, Satlaj, Ravi and Indus rivers. He cites instances when Akbar conferred lavish rewards on Karma Chand.
Than Singh was another favourite and confidante of Akbar. AT the instance of the emperor, a center of collecting books relating to Jainism was started in Agra and Than Singh was asked to look after it. It was said that in the reign of Akbar's successor Jahangir eighty-eight important Jain belonging to the Svetambar sect resided in Agra and all of them were fairly well off.
All travel accounts of Jain saints in the reign of Akbar describe grand processions being organised in towns by Jains through which they passed, especially in Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan where they were present in large numbers. In many towns of Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab, they again received warm reception from their followers. The opportunity to display publicly their faith and opulence must have exerted a powerful psychological impact on them to continue to earn and accumulate wealth.
The assemblage of affluent Jains in substantial number in Agra gave an impetus to cultural and religious activities. In 1594 Parimal wrote "Scriplacharita" which gives a vivid description of Agra and its society.
Banarsidas, the writer of first autobiography in Hindi, grew up in Agra and he was a member of a group which discussed a variety of religious subjects, some of which were disliked by orthodoxy. Banarasidas, as is well known also came in contact with the famous Hindi poet Goswami Tulsidas and Sundardas.
The intensified trade activities of Jain is evident from their presence in small and big towns in north India.
The Multan (in Punjab) we know of a group of Jain traders who followed the teaching of Banarsidas. It is said that the leading member Vardhaman Nawlakha went to Agra to meet Banarasidas.
Shah Haranand was a leading Jain trader, who resided in Lahore. Nahar Jatmal of Lahore subsequently wrote a poem "Lahore Gazal" in which he extensively described the city.
The Jain saint Jinsingh Suri went to Lahor and stayed there at the instance of Karma Chandra. His lay followers such as Parbat, Man Singh, etc. besides organizing meetings for his sermons gave him very warm and grand reception.
In Delhi, many Jains resided. In the time of Shah Jahan they constructed the famous Red Jain temple in the vicinity of Chandani Chowk which still exists.
Mathura was another center which attracted their presence. East of Agra, they could be found in Prayag, Janupur, Varanasi, Patna, etc. and were rich. Some of them were fairly affluent while some of them were just able to make both ends meet. While they were trading in bulk items such as textiles and dyes and food stuffs, they were also engaged in high valued trade of diamonds, gold and silver, etc.
Finally, one should also take into account the fact that many of the Jain saints though generally moving in Agra, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat region, still preferred to write in Hindi besides writing in the Sanskrit, Prakrit, Gujarati and Rajasthani. Thus in the later half of sixteenth century, Ratnakirt (Samvat 1600 to 1656) wrote a number of poems in Hindi. He is reputed to have been the first Digambar Jain the annals of Hindi poetry. Many of these writers in Hindi belonged to the Punjab as well.
One should not forget to mention that the Jains are also among the early writers of of Hindi prose. As traders and administrators it was almost a compulsion for them to acquire proficiency in writing of prose. In the mix-sixteenth century Pandey Rajmal wrote a commentary on Kunkundacarya's Samayasara in Hindi prose. Banarasi also wrote Hindi prose. This points to a growing realization among the Jain saints and litterateurs that many of their co-religionists has settled down in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region and had picked up the local language, therefore, it was necessary to speak and write in the language with which they were conversant, so that they could imbibe the message they intended to convey.
To students of history, another aspect of Jain literary works during the age of Akbar becomes important. Some of the writings dealt with the life and times of Akbar. Siddhichandra writes of Akbar "There is not a single art, not a single branch of knowledge, not a single act of boldness and strength which was not attempted by the young Emperor. One may not accept it but this is one dimension of how the contemporaries perceived their ruler. Similarly, while speaking of Abul Fazal, he says, "He had gone through the ocean of the whole literature and he was the best among all learned men." One can again questing this. But certainly one gets a contemporary view of one of the important chroniclers of Akbar's age.
Some biographical writings on Jain saints though highly eulogistic, throw light on the life-style of Jains, the status of women, the use of wealth, etc. and the religious schisms that affected the Jain society. We, therefore, have a glimpse into the history ;of a group, which though played an important role in the economy, but was largely ignored by the Persian writers. They remain, therefore, an important source for a fuller study of the society in the age of Akbar. To understand the age of Akbar, we have to read the writings of contemporary Jains.
Oct 31, 2009
Oct 30, 2009
The Yapaniya Sect of Jainism
By Mr. A. K. Roy
Apart from the Digambaras and the Svetambaras there was, in the past, another sect of the Jainas. This sect, know as the Yapaniyas existed in Karnataka at least from the 5th to the 14th century. This we know from epigraphic evidence. The first and the last inscription which mention them and which have been discovered so far, belong to these centuries respectively and all the inscriptions which mention them have been found in Karnataka only.
The first inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas is by Mrigesavarman (A.D. 475-490) a Kadamba king Palasika. The Kadambas themselves were Brahamanas, but this King erected a Jaina temple in the city of Palasika, and made a grant to the sects of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas, and the Kurchakas. (The Nirgranthas were, of course the Digambara, but who the Kurchakas were is not clear).
The last inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas was found in the Tuluva country - southwest Karnataka. It is dated Saka 1316 (A.D. 1394).
Thus we know that the sect existed for atleast a thousand years. We can also make the guess that the sect was ultimately absorbed in the Digambara community. The Yapaniyas worshipped nude images which still exist and the people who worship in these temples now a days are Digambaras. The Yapaniya monks themselves also used to remain nude. There was perhaps, therefore, not much absorption, specially if the sect ultimately dwindled to small number.
Nothing authentic is known about how the Yapaniya sect originated. Devasena records a tradition in his Darshanasara (mid 11th century that the yapaniya-sangha was started by a Shvetambara monk in the year 205 after the death of King Vikrama. Since however, the tradition is very late, not much reliance can be placed on it. However one thing is clear. The Digambaras believed that the original affiliation of the Yapaniyas was with the Shvetambaras and the Digambara author Indranandi counted them as one of the five improper or false sects of the Jainas. The five includes the Shvetambaras also.
The Shvetambaras author Gunaratna on the other hand makes the definite statement that the Digambaras were divided into four snaghas namely, Kastha, Mula, Mathura, and Gopya or Yapaniya. These last i.e. the Gopya or the Yapaniyas differ form the other three sects in three matters : they allowed women to find salvation. The net result was that neither the Digambaras not the Shvetambaras wanted to own the Yapaniyas . Indeed this is how Monier Williams would derive the word "yapaniya" from the root ya meaning expelled : the yapaniyas were perhaps those who wandered away after being expelled by both the communities.
It is not clear whether the Yapaniyas had any separate sacred texts of their own. There is some reference to Yapaniyatantra by the Dingambara author Haribhadra. But no such tantra is found at present. Perhaps for religious purposes the Yapaniyas used the Shvetambara sacred texts, for there is nothing against their principal dogmas in these works.
The Yapaniyas are a matter of only historical curiosity now. Indeed, except for their one great grammarian, Shakatayana, there is no reason to remember them. That shakatayana who was a contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsa (c. 817-877), was a yapaniya we know from the note by Malayagiri in his commentary on the Nandisutra.
All the available commentaries on the Shubdanushasana (grammar) Shakatayana are by Digambara authors who appear to have taken this grammar for their own. On the other hand two other works the Stri-mukti-prakarana and the Kevali- bhukti prakarana which are also said to be by Shakatayana are found only in the Shvetambara collections. Thus while one work of Shakatayana is accepted by the Digambaras, his two other works are accepted by the Shvetambaras only. It will be recalled that the position is some what similar in the case of Umaswami or Umaswati also. While both the main sects of the Jainas accept his great work the Tattvarthadhigama - sutra the author's own commentary on this work is acceptable to the Shvetambaras only. It is on this analogy that Nathrfuam Premi has conjectured that Umasvami was Yapaniya, for there is nothing else to support Premi's conjecture.
Oct 29, 2009
Virchand Raghavji Gandhi | First Jain Missionary to North America
By Mrs. Raksha Shah
“ Ladies and gentlemen, you have heard all your lives from your missionaries, who claim to be the messengers of God, “how ugly, wretched, immoral and vile the heathen Indians are… but did you ever hear from these missionaries – the messengers of love to all mankind – of the tyrannies that are perpetuated over the Hindus in India?”
These were the words of a fearless and frank patriot – the proud son of India – the late Shri Virchand Raghavji Gandhi, a renowned Barrister-At-Law, a great exponent of the Indian culture, a philosopher, reformer, a great Jain scholar, born at Mahua in Gujarat on the 25th of August 1864. His father Raghavji Gandhi was a well-to-do gentleman of the town, known for his honesty, integrity and religious mindedness. The seeds of service to the society were sown by his father, who himself was a reformer, a man very practical in approach who fought against social evils and succeeded in eradicating them.
As a child Shri Virchand received his primary education at the town school and was sent to Bhavnagar for further studies. At the age of sixteen, he passed his matriculation examination from Bhavanagar, and secured the 1st position, which entitled him to receive the ‘Shri Jaswant Singhji’ scholarship. The urge for knowledge made him take up further studies. He graduated from the Elphinstone College in Bombay in 1884, where he received his degree of B.A. with honors.
He was gifted with a fine and charming personality. He had a fairly tall, stately, well-built figure with well-proportionate features and a fine, brilliant and lustrous face. For his American sojourn, he had selected a dress, which added charm to his personality, a royal purple robe, and a gold colored turban. He had round his waist; a white sash with a knot on the right and two ends hanging to his knees. He wore oriental shoes. This make-up created an oriental and hallowed atmosphere around him. He looked like a priest, sober, serene and peaceful, eager to achieve his objective.
He was a polyglot who had mastered as many as fourteen languages. Apart from academics, he regularly attended the Jain Pathshala. The religious knowledge that he acquired at the Pathshala proved fruitful at the ‘Dharma Mahotsava’ held in Ajmer in 1895, where he was awarded a Gold Medal. He was a student of Buddhism and the Vedanta Philosophy who had also acquired knowledge of Christianity and Western Philosophy, mastered Yoga and Occultism and made comparative study of various philosophies, which equipped him for talks on various subjects with confidence.
He also happened to be the first Jain Barrister from London, who was, at the growing age of 20, appointed as the honorary secretary of the Jain Association of India.
HIS ACHIEVEMENTS:
1) It was he who fought in the Calcutta High court for a pious cause – to close down the slaughterhouses at Sametshikhar and toiled hard to convince and prove that Sametshikhar belonged to the Jains and Jains alone.
2) With strenuous efforts, he succeeded in abolishing the poll tax that was levied on Jain pilgrims at Shatrunjaya Tirth by the Thakore Saheb of Palitana.
3) The compassionate laity sent Rs. 40,000 and loads of grains to India from U.S.A. when a grave famine broke out in India in1897.
4) In all, he, in his very short span of life, delivered 535 speeches on Jainism and other religions, stressing upon the ethical, spiritual, social and cultural life of India. Due to his clear vision, unbiased approach, clarity in explanation, people were enthralled by his speeches.
5) At another instance the true laity not only preached the Jain principles of Ahimsa and Anekant, but also put them into practice. An Englishman Boddam slaughtered pigs and made tallow on a portion of the sacred Hills of Sametshikhar. The violation of the principles of Ahimsa on the very sacred hills where 20 Tirthankaras had achieved Nirvana caused great resentment in the Jain community. After the launched case had failed in the subordinate court, Shri Virchand was entrusted with this difficult task. He took pains, learnt the Bengali language to understand the case to its core, translated the documents of the known ‘Piggery Case’ and succeeded in closing down the factory from the Hills.
6) His remarkable, painstaking erudition reached its ecstasy at the Congress of World Religions held at Chicago in 1893. His eloquent exposition of Indian culture is to date remembered both in U.S.A. & U.K. Here, Pujya Shri Vijayanandsuri or Atmaramji Maharaj, a great scholar, saint and author of ‘Chicago Prasnotari’ and other learned treatise, deputed him.
The Congress, also known as the Parliament of Religions lasted for 17 long days from the 11th of September to the 27th of September 1893, where representatives of various religions presented and expounded the principles and philosophy of their religions. It was a unique gathering of leaders of world religions, all intelligent, devout, eager, learned and anxious to express and expound the principles of philosophy and religion. It provided a great opportunity for comparative study of different religions. Amongst the other delegates who sailed to America with Virchand Raghavji Gandhi, were Swami Vivekananda, representing Hinduism, Shri Nagarkar – of the Brahma Samaj, Shri Dharmapal from Ceylon representing Buddhism, Professor Gyanendranath Chakravarty of Allahabad and Miss Sorabji of Pune. Needless to say, Shri Virchandji represented Jainism.
In his remarkable speech, he tried to communicate and convey to the scholarly, eager listeners the essence of Jainism and its contribution, philosophically, ethically, historically, culturally and socially. This erudite speaker, who had mastered the Western as well as all other systems of Indian Philosophy gave lectures at the Congress on the various Indian Philosophical systems which enthralled the audience and made them realize the sublimity of Indian culture, at a time when the innocent Indians were considered to be barbarians and illiterates.
His speeches laid a great impact on the listeners. Amongst the many, Mr. Herbert Warren, the Honorary Secretary of the Jain Literature Society of London was so impressed that he arranged a series of talks and lectures by Virchandji and invited him to London. He later, published his speeches in the form of a book entitled ‘Jainism in Western Garb as a Solution to Life’s Great Problems’ in Sept. 1912. Till date various editions of this book have been printed. Shri Vallabhsuri Smarak Nidhi felt the void and reprinted the work in May, 1968.This arduous task was done by the esteemed scholar Dr. Nagindas J. Shah, the then Deputy Director of the renowned L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.
The book deals with topics such as the origin of the Universe, the existence of God, the causes of suffering, happiness and misery in the world, the ultimate purpose of life and ethics.
Shri Virchand Gandhi, himself has written books like,
1) Jain Philosophy
2) Karma Philosophy
3) Yoga Philosophy
4) The Six Systems Of Indian Philosophy
5) An Unknown Life Of Jesus Christ-Translated from the French edition
The appreciation of his speeches was shown by periodicals and newspapers, which at times printed the entire speech, word for word. An eminent contemporary also wrote about Shri Virchand Raghavji in eloquent terms: “A number of distinguished Hindu scholars, philosophers and religious teachers attended and addressed the Parliament, some of them taking rank with the highest of any race for learning, eloquence and piety, but it is safe to say that no one of the oriental scholars was listened to with greater interest than was this young layman of the Jains as he declared the Ethics and Philosophy of his People.”
Priests, public men and the press spoke in eulogistic and glowing terms and paid tribute to his scholarship, learning, intelligence and culture.
At one instance, he went furious when, at the Parliament of Religions, Rev. Pentecost, a delegate from London, used abusive language describing women in the Hindu Religion. He behaved like a patriotic Indian and sought to dispel false beliefs about the social and religious practices in the country. The American press was unanimous in declaring the remarks of Rev. Pentecost as derogatory to the dignity of the Parliament. They not only took note of Virchandji’s dignified and broad-minded reply but also printed the whole lecture verbatim.
On his second tour to the Western countries, he divided his time between America and England and delivered lectures, conducted study classes for six months each at both the places. He had also traveled to France, Germany and other European countries and delivered discourses on Jain Religion, which were very much appreciated. In 1899, he attended the International Commerce Conference representing Asia. He founded an organization for women called, ‘The Society for the Education of Women of India’, whose secretary was Mrs. Howard.
While in England, his health suddenly took a turn for the worse. He had to leave England abruptly - though luckily he had successfully finished his work of appeal. He returned to India but within only a few weeks of his return on 7th August 1901, Shri Virchandji at an early age of 37passed away. This valiant patriot was the first Jain who unfurled the Principles of Jainism and glorified them This religious man will ever be remembered as a brilliant promising young man, full of hopes and aspirations who served the society, the community and his motherland.
“ Ladies and gentlemen, you have heard all your lives from your missionaries, who claim to be the messengers of God, “how ugly, wretched, immoral and vile the heathen Indians are… but did you ever hear from these missionaries – the messengers of love to all mankind – of the tyrannies that are perpetuated over the Hindus in India?”
These were the words of a fearless and frank patriot – the proud son of India – the late Shri Virchand Raghavji Gandhi, a renowned Barrister-At-Law, a great exponent of the Indian culture, a philosopher, reformer, a great Jain scholar, born at Mahua in Gujarat on the 25th of August 1864. His father Raghavji Gandhi was a well-to-do gentleman of the town, known for his honesty, integrity and religious mindedness. The seeds of service to the society were sown by his father, who himself was a reformer, a man very practical in approach who fought against social evils and succeeded in eradicating them.
As a child Shri Virchand received his primary education at the town school and was sent to Bhavnagar for further studies. At the age of sixteen, he passed his matriculation examination from Bhavanagar, and secured the 1st position, which entitled him to receive the ‘Shri Jaswant Singhji’ scholarship. The urge for knowledge made him take up further studies. He graduated from the Elphinstone College in Bombay in 1884, where he received his degree of B.A. with honors.
He was gifted with a fine and charming personality. He had a fairly tall, stately, well-built figure with well-proportionate features and a fine, brilliant and lustrous face. For his American sojourn, he had selected a dress, which added charm to his personality, a royal purple robe, and a gold colored turban. He had round his waist; a white sash with a knot on the right and two ends hanging to his knees. He wore oriental shoes. This make-up created an oriental and hallowed atmosphere around him. He looked like a priest, sober, serene and peaceful, eager to achieve his objective.
He was a polyglot who had mastered as many as fourteen languages. Apart from academics, he regularly attended the Jain Pathshala. The religious knowledge that he acquired at the Pathshala proved fruitful at the ‘Dharma Mahotsava’ held in Ajmer in 1895, where he was awarded a Gold Medal. He was a student of Buddhism and the Vedanta Philosophy who had also acquired knowledge of Christianity and Western Philosophy, mastered Yoga and Occultism and made comparative study of various philosophies, which equipped him for talks on various subjects with confidence.
He also happened to be the first Jain Barrister from London, who was, at the growing age of 20, appointed as the honorary secretary of the Jain Association of India.
HIS ACHIEVEMENTS:
1) It was he who fought in the Calcutta High court for a pious cause – to close down the slaughterhouses at Sametshikhar and toiled hard to convince and prove that Sametshikhar belonged to the Jains and Jains alone.
2) With strenuous efforts, he succeeded in abolishing the poll tax that was levied on Jain pilgrims at Shatrunjaya Tirth by the Thakore Saheb of Palitana.
3) The compassionate laity sent Rs. 40,000 and loads of grains to India from U.S.A. when a grave famine broke out in India in1897.
4) In all, he, in his very short span of life, delivered 535 speeches on Jainism and other religions, stressing upon the ethical, spiritual, social and cultural life of India. Due to his clear vision, unbiased approach, clarity in explanation, people were enthralled by his speeches.
5) At another instance the true laity not only preached the Jain principles of Ahimsa and Anekant, but also put them into practice. An Englishman Boddam slaughtered pigs and made tallow on a portion of the sacred Hills of Sametshikhar. The violation of the principles of Ahimsa on the very sacred hills where 20 Tirthankaras had achieved Nirvana caused great resentment in the Jain community. After the launched case had failed in the subordinate court, Shri Virchand was entrusted with this difficult task. He took pains, learnt the Bengali language to understand the case to its core, translated the documents of the known ‘Piggery Case’ and succeeded in closing down the factory from the Hills.
6) His remarkable, painstaking erudition reached its ecstasy at the Congress of World Religions held at Chicago in 1893. His eloquent exposition of Indian culture is to date remembered both in U.S.A. & U.K. Here, Pujya Shri Vijayanandsuri or Atmaramji Maharaj, a great scholar, saint and author of ‘Chicago Prasnotari’ and other learned treatise, deputed him.
The Congress, also known as the Parliament of Religions lasted for 17 long days from the 11th of September to the 27th of September 1893, where representatives of various religions presented and expounded the principles and philosophy of their religions. It was a unique gathering of leaders of world religions, all intelligent, devout, eager, learned and anxious to express and expound the principles of philosophy and religion. It provided a great opportunity for comparative study of different religions. Amongst the other delegates who sailed to America with Virchand Raghavji Gandhi, were Swami Vivekananda, representing Hinduism, Shri Nagarkar – of the Brahma Samaj, Shri Dharmapal from Ceylon representing Buddhism, Professor Gyanendranath Chakravarty of Allahabad and Miss Sorabji of Pune. Needless to say, Shri Virchandji represented Jainism.
In his remarkable speech, he tried to communicate and convey to the scholarly, eager listeners the essence of Jainism and its contribution, philosophically, ethically, historically, culturally and socially. This erudite speaker, who had mastered the Western as well as all other systems of Indian Philosophy gave lectures at the Congress on the various Indian Philosophical systems which enthralled the audience and made them realize the sublimity of Indian culture, at a time when the innocent Indians were considered to be barbarians and illiterates.
His speeches laid a great impact on the listeners. Amongst the many, Mr. Herbert Warren, the Honorary Secretary of the Jain Literature Society of London was so impressed that he arranged a series of talks and lectures by Virchandji and invited him to London. He later, published his speeches in the form of a book entitled ‘Jainism in Western Garb as a Solution to Life’s Great Problems’ in Sept. 1912. Till date various editions of this book have been printed. Shri Vallabhsuri Smarak Nidhi felt the void and reprinted the work in May, 1968.This arduous task was done by the esteemed scholar Dr. Nagindas J. Shah, the then Deputy Director of the renowned L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.
The book deals with topics such as the origin of the Universe, the existence of God, the causes of suffering, happiness and misery in the world, the ultimate purpose of life and ethics.
Shri Virchand Gandhi, himself has written books like,
1) Jain Philosophy
2) Karma Philosophy
3) Yoga Philosophy
4) The Six Systems Of Indian Philosophy
5) An Unknown Life Of Jesus Christ-Translated from the French edition
The appreciation of his speeches was shown by periodicals and newspapers, which at times printed the entire speech, word for word. An eminent contemporary also wrote about Shri Virchand Raghavji in eloquent terms: “A number of distinguished Hindu scholars, philosophers and religious teachers attended and addressed the Parliament, some of them taking rank with the highest of any race for learning, eloquence and piety, but it is safe to say that no one of the oriental scholars was listened to with greater interest than was this young layman of the Jains as he declared the Ethics and Philosophy of his People.”
Priests, public men and the press spoke in eulogistic and glowing terms and paid tribute to his scholarship, learning, intelligence and culture.
At one instance, he went furious when, at the Parliament of Religions, Rev. Pentecost, a delegate from London, used abusive language describing women in the Hindu Religion. He behaved like a patriotic Indian and sought to dispel false beliefs about the social and religious practices in the country. The American press was unanimous in declaring the remarks of Rev. Pentecost as derogatory to the dignity of the Parliament. They not only took note of Virchandji’s dignified and broad-minded reply but also printed the whole lecture verbatim.
On his second tour to the Western countries, he divided his time between America and England and delivered lectures, conducted study classes for six months each at both the places. He had also traveled to France, Germany and other European countries and delivered discourses on Jain Religion, which were very much appreciated. In 1899, he attended the International Commerce Conference representing Asia. He founded an organization for women called, ‘The Society for the Education of Women of India’, whose secretary was Mrs. Howard.
While in England, his health suddenly took a turn for the worse. He had to leave England abruptly - though luckily he had successfully finished his work of appeal. He returned to India but within only a few weeks of his return on 7th August 1901, Shri Virchandji at an early age of 37passed away. This valiant patriot was the first Jain who unfurled the Principles of Jainism and glorified them This religious man will ever be remembered as a brilliant promising young man, full of hopes and aspirations who served the society, the community and his motherland.
Oct 25, 2009
Mahavira and His Philosophy of Life
By. Dr. A. N. Upadhye
The quest for the Higher on an intellectual or metaphysical plane has been all along, in India, the privilege or province of some outstanding individual or individuals, while the mass of the population, generally steeped in ignorance and poverty, was devoted to crude deification and ancestor-worship. The power of a religious leader lay in his ability to win over to his creed the people around him. In India there have been two types of religious leaders: the Priest, and the Ascetic.
The priest was a champion of retualism. He “vigorously claimed that the welfare and indeed the very existence of the world, including even the gods, depended upon the maintenance of their systems of sacrifice, which grew to immense size and complexity.” The cults popularized by him were polytheistic; the deities were very often forces of nature; and man was put at their utter mercy, the priest along being capable of saving him by seeking the favour of the deities through sacrificial rites. This is the line of thought of the Vedic religion and its custodians. It came into India from outside, from the North-West. And, thanks to the mesmeric power exerted by elaborate ritual, it gradually spread towards the East the and the South, catching handfuls of followers here and there.
As distinguished from this, in the East, along the fertile banks of the Ganges and the Jumna, there flourished in India a succession of ascetic teachers, who, hailing from rich families, had enough leisure for high thinking and religious meditation. For them, the spirit in man, and also in all animate beings, was the focus of religious meditation as well as an object of investigation in relation to all that is inanimate in the universe. This brought them fact to face with the problem of life here and elsewhere, since both spirit and matter were real for them-real, and therefore essentially eternal, though passing through the flux of change. Life here and hereafter was the result of the beginningless connection between spirit and matter, which was the source of all the misery in this world; and the aim of religion was to separate matter from spirit, so that the latter might achieve a state of liberation in which it would exist in a plenitude of purity, bliss and knowledge. Man is his own master; his thoughts, words and acts have made him, and continue to make him, what he is; it is in his hands to make or mar his present or future; the great teachers of the past are his ideals to inspire him along the path of religion; and he has to struggle, with hope, on the well-trodden path of spiritual progress, following a code of moral and ascetic discipline, till he reaches the goal of spiritual Emancipation or perfection.
Thus it will be seen that here, in the Eastern stream of religious thought, there is no place either for a Deity who shapes the universe and meddles in its matters, of for a priest invested with mysterious powers to propitiate Him. This line of thought is well represented by Jaina Tirthankaras like Neminatha, Parsva and Mahavira, by Ajivika Teachers like Goshala, by Samkhya philosophers like Kapila and promulgators of Buddhism like Buddha.
With the political freedom of our land, there is great enthusiasm all over the country, particularly patent and eloquent among the educated classes who have started revaluing the ancient Indian heritage in a new perspective. It is in the fitness of things that great personalities like Mahavira and Buddha are remembered with reverence in this context. I have often wondered how these great teachers, whose preachings have such an abiding human appeal, could have been somewhat neglected for some time in the very land which they enriched and elevated in its moral stature. It is, however, a happy augury that their greatness is being appreciated to-day all the more. As usual, it is an irony with us, that Western scholarship has to make us aware of the greatness of our men and matters. Very valuable work in the fields of Jaina and Buddhist literatures as done by Western savants; and to-day, we are in a position to appreciate the greatness of Mahavira and Buddha, better than we could do in earlier days.
As a sign of the new spirit, the 2500th Parinirvana Day of Buddha is being celebrated this year; besides, the Jayanti days of Mahavira and Buddha are celebrated all over the country every year now. Today happens to be the Mahavira Jayanti day. And it is but natural that I should address you in detail on the personality of and principles preached by Mahavira.
Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha, and he stands as the 24th Tirthankara whose preachings fully breathe the spirit of what I have called Eastern stream of thought in India. All that Mahavira and his predecessors have preached goes under the name of Jainism to-day, but that should not come in the way of our appreciating and putting into practice the great principles preached by Mahavira which stand to-day embedded and elaborately interpreted in Jaina literature in different languages.
Those of you who have visited Bihar can testify to the fertility of that part of India; but more than that, in the history of Indian thought and culture Bihar has played an important role. The great champions of Atma philosophy like Buddha, Janaka and Mahavira hail from this part. It is Mithila in Bihar that has made substantial contributions to Mimamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika systems. Some 2500 years ago, Vaishali (modern Basarh, some 30 miles to the north of Patna) was a prosperous capital. A suburb of it was called Kundapura or Kshatriyakunda; and here in the palace of King Sidhartha of his queen Trishala or Priyakarini Mahavira was born to emphasize his various outstanding traits, he was also known as Jnata-putra, Vaisaliya, Vardhamana, Sanmati, etc. His mother belonged to the family of Chetaka, the mighty Licchavi ruler of Videha at whose call Licchavis and Mallas co-operated both for defense and offence. Tradition is not unanimous about his marriage: according to the one, he was a celibate throughout; while according to another, he married Yashoda and had a daughter called Priyadarshana. As a prince, having excellent connections with ruling dynasties of his times, it was expected of him to rule with authority and enjoy the pleasures of a prosperous carrier after his father. But that was no to be. Just at the age of 30, Mahavira decided like a hero to relinquish the comforts of a princely life and undertook the life of an ascetic with a view to attaining spiritual happiness, and thus place before the world the correct values of life and an example of his having solved its problems in a successful manner. Attachment and possessive instincts have been the greatest obstacles in the attainment of spiritual peace and purification; and he gave them up in an ideal manner. Physical comforts are not an end in themselves; and mahavira became Nirgrantha, and went about practicing severe penances, even without any clothes on his body. We have graphic description of his hardships given in detail in the Acharanga, etc.: people abused him, boys pelted him with stones, and thus he was subjected to many calamities in the Eastern part of Bengal. After twelve years of rigorous penances, Mahavira had a triumph over physical weaknesses and limitations; and he attained pure and perfect knowledge which transcended the limits of space and time: he became a Kevalin, a Sarvajna. Shrenika Bimbisara was his contemporary and was ruling at Rajagrha: Mahavira delivered his first sermon on the hill Vipulakala in the vicinity of Rajagrha. For full thirty years he visited different parts of the country; and it was his Vihara, or religious tour, as well as that of Buddha, that gave Magadhan territory the name of Bihar. Mahavira’s parents belonged to the school of Parshva; during his Vihara, Mahavira explained toe his society various problems of life and their solutions. He laid maximum stress on the sanctity and dignity of the spirit, and his preachings were meant for one and all who conformed to the religious discipline outlined by him. The organization of his followers, including princes as well as poor peasants, conformed to the fourfold pattern consisting of Monks, Nuns, Householders and House-ladies: this nomenclature continues in Jainism even to this day. The influence of the great principles preached by Mahavira is seen in India even outside Jainism. He was a Tirthankara, who prepared a ford for the suffering humanity to achieve peace here and bliss elsewhere. In view of the all-embracing character of Mahavir’s principles, Samantabhadra, as early as 2nd century A.D., called the Tirtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya, which term is so commonly used now-a days after Gandhiji. At the age of 72, Mahavira attained Nirvana at Pava in 527 B. C.; and this day is celebrated with lights all over India as the Divali Day.
A large amount of literature, both ancient and modern, is available on the life and activities of Mahavira; and many myths, miracles and legends have grown about his personality, as usual with all religius dignitaries. Scientific and historical scrutiny unaffected by sectarian prejudice and religious bias is made difficult by the very nature of the sources from which the information has to be gleaned. What I have attempted above is a bare outline of Mahavira’s biography. If it is difficult, of beyond the means of historical study, to know all about Mahavira, in my humble opinion, it is more important to understand and put into practice the principles preached by Mahavira that to discuss this detail or that about his personal life.
In this connection, you will excuse me, if I make a little digression introducing to you some aspects of Vaisali (spelt as Vaishali), the birthplace of Mahavira. The town was at its height of prosperity, and by its association with Mahavira It became far-famed in the religious world of India. Teachers from Vaishali preached great principles for the uplift of humanity and lived an austere life of fasts and penances; and Mahavira stood out as the most prominent of hi contemporaries. According to the Mahavastu, Buddha sought his first teachers in Alara and Uddaka at Vaishali and “even started his life as a Jain under their teachings.” After discovering his Middle Path, the became more and more honored at Vaishali, receiving even royal reception; the city built for him a Kutagara-shala, a pinnacled rest house, in its suburban park known as the Mahavana. It is at Vaishali that the Second Buddhist Council was held; and it came to be looked upon as a holy spot where differences in the Sangha could be ironed out. His celebrated disciple Amrapali was a resident of Vaishali at which place she bequeathed her park to Buddha and the community. Vaishali has its political significance too. It had a Republican Government, and King Chetaka, the Licchavi Republican President, ‘organized a Federation of Republics comprising Mallakis, and 18 Gana-rajas of Kashikoshala, besides the 9 Licchavi Republics.’ The working of the Vajjian Confederation, so vividly described in the Dighanikaya, is an unique example of its kind and essentially contributed to the efficiency and solidarity of the Republic. Further Vaishali was a commercial capital where seals were issued by three classes of guilds, namely, Bankers, Traders and Artisans. When Fa-Hien visited India (A.D. 399-414), it was an important religious, political and commercial centre; but its fall began in the next three centuries, and but its fall began in the next three centuries, and what Hiuen-Tsang (A.D. 635) saw there was more or less in ruins. And to-day it is a neglected village.
The Indian Republic of to-day has inherited a great deal from the spirit of Vaishali, and the Vajjian concord is the pedestal of our democracy, apart from the fact that Ahimsa with its corollaries, viz., Panchasilas, is the bed-rock on which our policies are built. By adopting Hindi as the State Language, our Central Government is only carrying on the policy of Magadhan Governments which gave more importance to the language of the massed than to the of the classes. The inscriptions of Ashoka are all in Prakrit. Our Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who said the other day that he can find time to meet the humblest in the country even in preference to his big officials easily reminds me of Ashoka, the Priyadarshin, who had a similar dictum. Thus it is but natural that Vaishali can no more be neglected. Thanks to the vigilant eye of the Central Government, patronage of the Bihar Government, princely gifts enlightened industrialists like Shri Shantiprasadji and the active efforts of the Vaishali Sangha with its able workers like Shri J. C. Mathur, Vaishali is rising up again. The Bihar Government have started a Post-graduate Institute there for Prakrit and Jaina studies, and Dr. Hiralal Jain is the first worthy Director of this growing Institute. We have no doubt that the place will be a great centre of learning.
Through the ravages of time and tide, and due to political vicissitudes Vaishali fell into ruins; and we had nearly forgotten its identity. But you will be pleased to hear that Vaishali has not forgotten its worthy sons. Among the Jaina and Buddhist relics, the most important remnant is a plot of fertile land, owned by a local significant family of Simha or Natha Kshatriyas, which is never cultivated, as far as the family memory goes, because for generations it is believed in the family that on that spot Mahavira was born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is a remarkable event in the religious history of India that memory of mahavira is so concretely kept at his birthplace by his kinsmen though 2500 years have quietly elapsed.
The period in which Mahavira lived was undoubtedly an age of acute intellectual upheaval in the cultural history of India; and among his contemporaries there were such religious teachers as Kesha Kambalin, Makkhali Gosala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Purana Kassapana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Tathagata Buddha. Mahavira inherited a good deal from earlier Tirthankaras. He left behind not only a systematic religion and philosophy but also a well-knit social order of ascetics and lay followers who earnestly followed and practiced what he and his immediate disciples preached.
Buddha and Mahavira lived in the same age and moved about in the same area with the same dynasties and rulers in view. They stressed the dignity of man as man, and preached to the masses in their own language high moral ideals which advanced the individual on the spiritual plane and further contributed to social solidarity. To posterity, they are the best representatives of the Eastern or Magadhan religion, or what is generally called the Shramanic culture; the basic literature embodying their utterances, has luckily survived to us. A comparative study of the early Jain and Buddhist works presents a remarkable similarity and breathes verily the same religious and moral spirit which as not only stood the test of time for the last two thousand years and the solution of many a human problem. Truth and non-violence as preached and practiced by the background of the moral code preached by Mahavira and Buddha. The references to the Nirgrantha tenets in the Pali canon are of great value for assessing the relation of Jainism and Buddhism.
Apparently there was so much in common between Buddha and Mahavira, that early European scholars mistook them for one individual. But to-day, with progress of studies, they stand before us as two distinct personalities who have left an abiding influence on the history of Indian thought. Buddha, it has to be noted, experimented with many teachers prior to his enlightenment, and discovered the Middle Path, after rejecting much of religious thought current round about him. That was not the case with Mahavira. The religion preached by Vrishabha, Neminatha and his immediate predecessor Parshva (who flourished just a couple of centuries before Mahavira) was already inherited by him and he presented it for contemporary society. Buddha is less compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, because he started with the conviction that he had personally discovered something new for humanity. But Mahavira was more accommodating nd compromising and quite willing to understand the point of view of others, primarily because he was preaching an earlier religion, may be for a slightly different order of monks and laymen. “It is evident,” as Jacobi has remarked, “that both Mahavira and Buddha have made use of the interest and support of their families to propagate their Order. Their prevalence over other rivals was certainly due in some degree to their connection with the chef families of the country.” Buddha had a longer lease of life: he lived for full eighty years; while Mahavira lived only 72 years. The middle path of Buddha struck a note of novelty and inspired so much enthusiasm among his new followers that its influence spread far and wide. Mahavira, however, had to preach both to old and new followers, and obviously he must have been guided by a spirit of compromise: the question of new recruits was not with him as urgent as it was with Buddha. There is evidence, further confirmed by close similarity between Jaina and Buddhist monastic rules, that Buddha did try the Nirgrantha way of living for a while, obviously the one preached long before by Parshvanatha. As observed by Jacobi “niganthas (Nirgranthas), now better known under the name of Jainas or Arhatas, already existed as an important sect at the time when the Buddhist church was being founded.” The Pali canon refers to Mahavira as Niggantha Nataputta. Both Mahavira and Buddha thus started their careers with the same capital of Shramanic ideology, but differed later on in details, and so also their followers with changing times and places. The subsequent history of Jainism and Buddhism, the former confining itself primarily to India but still surviving as a living institution and the latter spreading with remarkable zeal practically all over the Eastern hemisphere but losing its bearings in the very land of its birth, has its seeds to be sought in their earlier beginnings outlined above. It is absolutely necessary that the doctrines of Buddha and Mahavira be studied in more detail than is done ordinarily by the educated man.
The history of the Jaina Church has many a bright spot here and there. After Mahavira the Church was led by a series of eminent monks and received patronage from kings like Shrenika, Bimbisara, Chandragupta Maurya, etc. Many religious monks, ruling dynasties, wealth traders and pious families have contributed to the stability and continuity of Jaina Church with the result that India can feel proud of the Jaina contributions both to its civilization and culture in matters of art, architecture, literature and moral code.
The preachings of Mahavira are embedded in the canonical texts, and they are interpreted by series of commentaries known as Niryuktis, Curnis, Bhashyas and Tikas. Individual topic are discussed in manuals and further illustrated by extensive narrative literatures. The doctrines are logically defended by a number of authors in comparison with and contrast to other Indian systems. Jaina contributions to Indian literature embrace various subjects; and they are spread in different languages like Prakrits (including Apabhramsha), Sanskrit, Tamil, kannada, Old Hindi, Old Gujarati, etc. Jaina authors have considered language only as means to an end; they never invested any one language with religious sanctity. Thanks to their broad outlook, they could make salient contributions to Sanskrit and Prakrit; and how they have enriched Tamil and Kannada, at least the learned audience here needs no further elaboration from me. Buhler wrote many years back about Jaina literature in this manner: “In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles-letters the achievements of Jainas have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their works are of importance for European Science even to-day. In the South where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil and Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jaina monks. Thought his activity has led them far away from their own particular aims, yet it has secured for them an important place in the history of Indian literature and civilization.” This prophetic observation of that great German scholar is not only fully borne out, but latter finds and researches have also shown that if Buhler had lived to-day, he would have been more eloquent on the Jaina contributions to Indian Literature. With such meticulous care and perseverance the Jainas have preserved MS. collections in places like Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Pattan and Moodbidri that these are a part of our national wealth. They built these collections with such an academic and catholic outlook, that there was hardly any place for religious bias. It must be said to the credit of the builders of the great collections at Jaisalmer and Pattan that it is here that we could trace certain original Buddhist works which otherwise were known to us only from Tibetian translations.
A dispassionate and critical study of Jaina literature enables one to get a fair idea of the Jaina outlook or view of life. By the Jaina view of life we mean the view of life sanctioned by Jainism as apparent from an objective and judicious interpretation of the fundamentals of Jaina metaphysics and ethics, and not the outlook on the life which the followers of Jainism generally have to-day.
Metaphysically speaking, all souls, according to their stage of spiritual evolution or progress (in terms of Gunasthanas) have a legitimate place on the path of religion; everyone’s position is determined by his Karmic limitations, and his progress depends on his potentialities. The Jaina God is neither a creator of the universe nor a dispenser of favors and frowns. He is a spiritual ideal, but also a being who has reached absolute perfection. If He is praised and worshipped, it is with a view to remembering His virtues, so that we may cultivate them in ourselves and attain the same status. Every soul must reap the fruits, pleasant or painful, of all it has done; for it is, in the last analysis, the architect of its own fortune. The question of exchanging one’s sins or merits with any other soul is irrelevant. Now, clearly such an attitude does not leave one at the mercy of an outside agency, divine or semi-divine and enables one to work with confidence and hope. The individual, however criminal under the stress of internal and external forces, need not despair because he is latently divine, and a day will come when he will realize himself.
Jainism lays down certain ethical standards which are duly graded, for the uplift of the individual as a social being. As long as he lives as a member of society, betterment, he owes to himself for his spiritual betterment, he owes a good deal to the society in which he is living; but if he relinquishes the world and leads the life of an ascetic, hi ties with society and his responsibilities towards it are considerably reduced. In Jainism, the duties of a householder are in miniature those of a monk; and a householder, while duly carrying out his household duties, rises steadily to the status of a monk.
Ahimsa is the most important principle that permeates the Jaina outlook on life. In simple language it means the greatest possible kindness towards the animate world. Jainism has prepared a graded series of living beings; and a religious person has to strive his best to minimise harm to them. Every living beings has a sanctity and a dignity of its own; and one has to respect it as one expects one’s own dignity to be respected. A man of kindly temperament sheds around him an atmosphere of kindness. Jainism has firmly held that life is sacred irrespective of species, caste, color, creed or nationality. A resident of Hiroshima or Nagasaki is as sacred as one in New York or London: what his color is, what he eats, and how he dresses-these are external adjuncts. Thus the practice of Ahimsa is both an individual and a collective virtue; and this kindly attitude, which requires that our hearts be free from baser impulses like anger, pride, hypocrisy, greed, envy and contempt, has a positive force and universal appeal.
The second virtue which Jaina ethics lays stress on is good neighborliness; one should speak the truth and respect the right of property. It is thus that one becomes trustworthy in society, and at the same time creates an atmosphere of security for others. One’s thoughts, words and acts must be consistent with each other; and they must, further, create an atmosphere of confidence and a reciprocal sense of security must start with the immediate neighbour and then be gradually diffused in society at large, not only in theory but also in practice. These virtues can go to constitute coherent social and political groups of worthy citizens who yearn for peaceful co-existence with the well-being of the entire humanity in view.
The third virtue is a steady and progressive restraint on acquisitiveness which manifests itself either in the form of yearning for sensual or sex pleasure, or for acquisition of property. This virtue is to be practiced in different degrees at different stages of one’s spiritual or religious progress. An ideally religious man is entirely free from acquisitiveness in thought, word and deed; his last vestige of property is his body alone, and his wants are the minimum required to sustain it; and this too he voluntarily relinquishes in the end when he finds that it gives him no more aid in the practice of religion. Pursuit of pleasure as an endless game; individual inclinations and passions must be duly trained and curbed; thus indeed does one get mental poise and spiritual balance. A voluntary limitation of property is community virtue which results in social justice and fair distribution of utility commodities. The strong and the rich should not weed out the weak and the poor but put such voluntary restriction on their instincts and possessions that the underprivileged too have a fair chance in life. Any attempt to enforce these qualities by an external and legal authority, either on the individual or society, will lead to hypocrisy or secret criminal tendencies. It is for sensible individuals to practice these virtues, and thus set an example from which an enlightened society will gradually be developed.
There are many elements which go to constitute the intellectual make-up of an individual; his inheritance, environment, upbringing, studies and experiences. It is this intellectual make-up that shapes his convictions and opinions: if he lacks in intellectual honesty and integrity of expression, these latter may get perverted. All these, moreover, get a different coloring according to the motives and ambitions of individuals, singly or collectively. This is why one finds that unanimity of opinion or agreement in views is very scarce. For most of us, even presuming that all of us are sincere, it is easier, nay almost natural, to differ rather than agree on any given topic. To meet this situation, Jainism has presented to the world two significant instruments of understanding and expression: one is the Nayavada and the other, Syadvada. The Nayavada enables one to analyse the various points of view and appraises their relative validity: it is a remarkable method for the analytical comprehension of a complex question. Naya is a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular view of the totality, and it should not be mistaken for the whole. A synthesis of these different viewpoints is an imperative necessity; therein every view point must retain its relative position; and this need is fulfilled by Syadvada. One can say ‘yes,’ of say ‘no’ or even express one’s inability to state anything: these three basic statements, when combined, can give rise to seven predications which are qualified by the term ‘syat’ or ‘may be,’ indicating the limits of understanding and expression. Syadvada, in course of the process of assertion or denial curbs down and harmonizes the absolute viewpoints of individual Nayas. “Syadvada,” says Professor A. B. Dhruva, “is not a doctrine of speculative interest, one intended to solve a mere ontological problem, but has a bearing upon man’s physiological and spiritual life.” It has supplied the philosopher with catholicity of thought, convincing him that Truth is not anybody’s monopoly with tariff walls of denominational religion, while furnishing the religious aspirant with the virtue of intellectual toleration which is a part of that Ahimsa which is one of the fundamental tenets of Jainism.
Human beings have limited knowledge and inadequate expression. That is why different doctrines are inadequate; at the most they are one-sided views of the Truth which cannot be duly enclosed in words and concepts. Jainism has always held that it is wrong, if not dangerous to presume that one’s own creed alone represents the truth. Toleration is, therefore, the characteristic of Jaina ideology. Even the Jaina monarchs and generals have a slean and commendable record to their credit I this regard. The political history of India knows no cases of persecution by Jaina kings, even when Jaina monks and laymen have suffered at the hands of other religionists of fanatical temper. Dr. Saletore has rightly observed: “The principle of Ahimsa was partly responsible for the greatest contribution of the Jainas to Hindu culture-that relating to toleration. Whatever may be said concerning the rigidity with which they maintained their religious tenets and the tenacity and skill with which they met and defeated their opponents in religious disputations, yet it cannot be denied that the Jainas fostered the principle of toleration more sincerely and at the same time more successfully than any other community in India.”
Time was when man was at the mercy of nature; to-day, however, he has dived deep into the mysteries of nature and become her master instead of her slave. There is such rapid progress in the various branches of science; and the scientist’s achievements in nuclear physics and atomic weapons are so astounding tat, if he is intends, he can destroy the entire human race and change the face of the earth. Thus, to-day, the human race is standing on the verge of catastrophe; its mind is getting befogged and bewildered; and it is rushing towards the very precipice which it wants to avoid. Obviously, we are required to revalue our values.
The progress of science is the corollary of an attempt to achieve greater happiness for man. But, unfortunately, man as man is not properly understood; of language. By the term “man” many have only “the white man” in view; and such an attitude is subversive of all ethical standards. If some parts of the world are apparently more civilized, very often it is at the cost of the other parts. Co-operative and collective amelioration of the entire mankind has to take the place of colonial exploitation. The sanctity and dignity of mankind have to be recognized in preference to our separate affluence and supremacy. Scientific skill must be accompanied by a saint’s wisdom. Thus man has to understand man as man. In this technically unified world, there is very little difference between oneself and others; I wish well to myself, that is practicable, only if I wish well to others. The doctrine of Ahimsa, if rightly understood and sincerely practiced, supplies the necessary basis for this humanitarian outlook of a world-citizen.
The organized atrocities of man need not make us despair. The doctrine of Karma tells us that we are the architects of our own fortune. It is for us to look into ourselves, analyse our motives, estimate our objectives, both individually and collectively, without slavishly prostrating ourselves before any power for fear or favour; and thus work on with confidence and hope that man must progress for his existence and betterment. Every individually has the potentiality of the divine, and it is for him to realize this by following the path of religion. Physical science and technical skill have given us power, and it is for us now to choose whether we want to make forward progress for the betterment of man and his environment or just reduce ourselves to a heap of radio-active ashes.
Good neighborliness and restraint on the acquisitive instinct are a contagious virtue: what is true of an individual is also true of a group, social or political. The man who does not know himself and refuses to know another an as man can never live at peace with himself or, obviously, at peace with others. A clear understanding of onself and of others can alone remove mutual suspicion and counterbalance the constant threat of war, thus leading us to a true condition of peaceful co-existence.
To-day, liberty of thought and speech is increasingly getting crippled in a subtle manner. Tendentious propaganda not only conceals but also perverts the apparent facts, and the world is put on a wrong track. This means that the thinking man has to keep himself vigilant, understand the limitations of his knowledge and thus learn to respect the viewpoint of others, as laid down by Nayavada and Syadvada. Let us ot lose faith in man as man, and let us learn to respect each other as man. We must see that man lives under healthy and progressive conditions as a world-citizen. The basic principles of Jainism (such as Ahimsa, Vratas, Nayavada and Syadvada), if correctly understood and earnestly put into practice, can make one a worthy citizen of the world
The quest for the Higher on an intellectual or metaphysical plane has been all along, in India, the privilege or province of some outstanding individual or individuals, while the mass of the population, generally steeped in ignorance and poverty, was devoted to crude deification and ancestor-worship. The power of a religious leader lay in his ability to win over to his creed the people around him. In India there have been two types of religious leaders: the Priest, and the Ascetic.
The priest was a champion of retualism. He “vigorously claimed that the welfare and indeed the very existence of the world, including even the gods, depended upon the maintenance of their systems of sacrifice, which grew to immense size and complexity.” The cults popularized by him were polytheistic; the deities were very often forces of nature; and man was put at their utter mercy, the priest along being capable of saving him by seeking the favour of the deities through sacrificial rites. This is the line of thought of the Vedic religion and its custodians. It came into India from outside, from the North-West. And, thanks to the mesmeric power exerted by elaborate ritual, it gradually spread towards the East the and the South, catching handfuls of followers here and there.
As distinguished from this, in the East, along the fertile banks of the Ganges and the Jumna, there flourished in India a succession of ascetic teachers, who, hailing from rich families, had enough leisure for high thinking and religious meditation. For them, the spirit in man, and also in all animate beings, was the focus of religious meditation as well as an object of investigation in relation to all that is inanimate in the universe. This brought them fact to face with the problem of life here and elsewhere, since both spirit and matter were real for them-real, and therefore essentially eternal, though passing through the flux of change. Life here and hereafter was the result of the beginningless connection between spirit and matter, which was the source of all the misery in this world; and the aim of religion was to separate matter from spirit, so that the latter might achieve a state of liberation in which it would exist in a plenitude of purity, bliss and knowledge. Man is his own master; his thoughts, words and acts have made him, and continue to make him, what he is; it is in his hands to make or mar his present or future; the great teachers of the past are his ideals to inspire him along the path of religion; and he has to struggle, with hope, on the well-trodden path of spiritual progress, following a code of moral and ascetic discipline, till he reaches the goal of spiritual Emancipation or perfection.
Thus it will be seen that here, in the Eastern stream of religious thought, there is no place either for a Deity who shapes the universe and meddles in its matters, of for a priest invested with mysterious powers to propitiate Him. This line of thought is well represented by Jaina Tirthankaras like Neminatha, Parsva and Mahavira, by Ajivika Teachers like Goshala, by Samkhya philosophers like Kapila and promulgators of Buddhism like Buddha.
With the political freedom of our land, there is great enthusiasm all over the country, particularly patent and eloquent among the educated classes who have started revaluing the ancient Indian heritage in a new perspective. It is in the fitness of things that great personalities like Mahavira and Buddha are remembered with reverence in this context. I have often wondered how these great teachers, whose preachings have such an abiding human appeal, could have been somewhat neglected for some time in the very land which they enriched and elevated in its moral stature. It is, however, a happy augury that their greatness is being appreciated to-day all the more. As usual, it is an irony with us, that Western scholarship has to make us aware of the greatness of our men and matters. Very valuable work in the fields of Jaina and Buddhist literatures as done by Western savants; and to-day, we are in a position to appreciate the greatness of Mahavira and Buddha, better than we could do in earlier days.
As a sign of the new spirit, the 2500th Parinirvana Day of Buddha is being celebrated this year; besides, the Jayanti days of Mahavira and Buddha are celebrated all over the country every year now. Today happens to be the Mahavira Jayanti day. And it is but natural that I should address you in detail on the personality of and principles preached by Mahavira.
Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha, and he stands as the 24th Tirthankara whose preachings fully breathe the spirit of what I have called Eastern stream of thought in India. All that Mahavira and his predecessors have preached goes under the name of Jainism to-day, but that should not come in the way of our appreciating and putting into practice the great principles preached by Mahavira which stand to-day embedded and elaborately interpreted in Jaina literature in different languages.
Those of you who have visited Bihar can testify to the fertility of that part of India; but more than that, in the history of Indian thought and culture Bihar has played an important role. The great champions of Atma philosophy like Buddha, Janaka and Mahavira hail from this part. It is Mithila in Bihar that has made substantial contributions to Mimamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika systems. Some 2500 years ago, Vaishali (modern Basarh, some 30 miles to the north of Patna) was a prosperous capital. A suburb of it was called Kundapura or Kshatriyakunda; and here in the palace of King Sidhartha of his queen Trishala or Priyakarini Mahavira was born to emphasize his various outstanding traits, he was also known as Jnata-putra, Vaisaliya, Vardhamana, Sanmati, etc. His mother belonged to the family of Chetaka, the mighty Licchavi ruler of Videha at whose call Licchavis and Mallas co-operated both for defense and offence. Tradition is not unanimous about his marriage: according to the one, he was a celibate throughout; while according to another, he married Yashoda and had a daughter called Priyadarshana. As a prince, having excellent connections with ruling dynasties of his times, it was expected of him to rule with authority and enjoy the pleasures of a prosperous carrier after his father. But that was no to be. Just at the age of 30, Mahavira decided like a hero to relinquish the comforts of a princely life and undertook the life of an ascetic with a view to attaining spiritual happiness, and thus place before the world the correct values of life and an example of his having solved its problems in a successful manner. Attachment and possessive instincts have been the greatest obstacles in the attainment of spiritual peace and purification; and he gave them up in an ideal manner. Physical comforts are not an end in themselves; and mahavira became Nirgrantha, and went about practicing severe penances, even without any clothes on his body. We have graphic description of his hardships given in detail in the Acharanga, etc.: people abused him, boys pelted him with stones, and thus he was subjected to many calamities in the Eastern part of Bengal. After twelve years of rigorous penances, Mahavira had a triumph over physical weaknesses and limitations; and he attained pure and perfect knowledge which transcended the limits of space and time: he became a Kevalin, a Sarvajna. Shrenika Bimbisara was his contemporary and was ruling at Rajagrha: Mahavira delivered his first sermon on the hill Vipulakala in the vicinity of Rajagrha. For full thirty years he visited different parts of the country; and it was his Vihara, or religious tour, as well as that of Buddha, that gave Magadhan territory the name of Bihar. Mahavira’s parents belonged to the school of Parshva; during his Vihara, Mahavira explained toe his society various problems of life and their solutions. He laid maximum stress on the sanctity and dignity of the spirit, and his preachings were meant for one and all who conformed to the religious discipline outlined by him. The organization of his followers, including princes as well as poor peasants, conformed to the fourfold pattern consisting of Monks, Nuns, Householders and House-ladies: this nomenclature continues in Jainism even to this day. The influence of the great principles preached by Mahavira is seen in India even outside Jainism. He was a Tirthankara, who prepared a ford for the suffering humanity to achieve peace here and bliss elsewhere. In view of the all-embracing character of Mahavir’s principles, Samantabhadra, as early as 2nd century A.D., called the Tirtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya, which term is so commonly used now-a days after Gandhiji. At the age of 72, Mahavira attained Nirvana at Pava in 527 B. C.; and this day is celebrated with lights all over India as the Divali Day.
A large amount of literature, both ancient and modern, is available on the life and activities of Mahavira; and many myths, miracles and legends have grown about his personality, as usual with all religius dignitaries. Scientific and historical scrutiny unaffected by sectarian prejudice and religious bias is made difficult by the very nature of the sources from which the information has to be gleaned. What I have attempted above is a bare outline of Mahavira’s biography. If it is difficult, of beyond the means of historical study, to know all about Mahavira, in my humble opinion, it is more important to understand and put into practice the principles preached by Mahavira that to discuss this detail or that about his personal life.
In this connection, you will excuse me, if I make a little digression introducing to you some aspects of Vaisali (spelt as Vaishali), the birthplace of Mahavira. The town was at its height of prosperity, and by its association with Mahavira It became far-famed in the religious world of India. Teachers from Vaishali preached great principles for the uplift of humanity and lived an austere life of fasts and penances; and Mahavira stood out as the most prominent of hi contemporaries. According to the Mahavastu, Buddha sought his first teachers in Alara and Uddaka at Vaishali and “even started his life as a Jain under their teachings.” After discovering his Middle Path, the became more and more honored at Vaishali, receiving even royal reception; the city built for him a Kutagara-shala, a pinnacled rest house, in its suburban park known as the Mahavana. It is at Vaishali that the Second Buddhist Council was held; and it came to be looked upon as a holy spot where differences in the Sangha could be ironed out. His celebrated disciple Amrapali was a resident of Vaishali at which place she bequeathed her park to Buddha and the community. Vaishali has its political significance too. It had a Republican Government, and King Chetaka, the Licchavi Republican President, ‘organized a Federation of Republics comprising Mallakis, and 18 Gana-rajas of Kashikoshala, besides the 9 Licchavi Republics.’ The working of the Vajjian Confederation, so vividly described in the Dighanikaya, is an unique example of its kind and essentially contributed to the efficiency and solidarity of the Republic. Further Vaishali was a commercial capital where seals were issued by three classes of guilds, namely, Bankers, Traders and Artisans. When Fa-Hien visited India (A.D. 399-414), it was an important religious, political and commercial centre; but its fall began in the next three centuries, and but its fall began in the next three centuries, and what Hiuen-Tsang (A.D. 635) saw there was more or less in ruins. And to-day it is a neglected village.
The Indian Republic of to-day has inherited a great deal from the spirit of Vaishali, and the Vajjian concord is the pedestal of our democracy, apart from the fact that Ahimsa with its corollaries, viz., Panchasilas, is the bed-rock on which our policies are built. By adopting Hindi as the State Language, our Central Government is only carrying on the policy of Magadhan Governments which gave more importance to the language of the massed than to the of the classes. The inscriptions of Ashoka are all in Prakrit. Our Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who said the other day that he can find time to meet the humblest in the country even in preference to his big officials easily reminds me of Ashoka, the Priyadarshin, who had a similar dictum. Thus it is but natural that Vaishali can no more be neglected. Thanks to the vigilant eye of the Central Government, patronage of the Bihar Government, princely gifts enlightened industrialists like Shri Shantiprasadji and the active efforts of the Vaishali Sangha with its able workers like Shri J. C. Mathur, Vaishali is rising up again. The Bihar Government have started a Post-graduate Institute there for Prakrit and Jaina studies, and Dr. Hiralal Jain is the first worthy Director of this growing Institute. We have no doubt that the place will be a great centre of learning.
Through the ravages of time and tide, and due to political vicissitudes Vaishali fell into ruins; and we had nearly forgotten its identity. But you will be pleased to hear that Vaishali has not forgotten its worthy sons. Among the Jaina and Buddhist relics, the most important remnant is a plot of fertile land, owned by a local significant family of Simha or Natha Kshatriyas, which is never cultivated, as far as the family memory goes, because for generations it is believed in the family that on that spot Mahavira was born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is a remarkable event in the religious history of India that memory of mahavira is so concretely kept at his birthplace by his kinsmen though 2500 years have quietly elapsed.
The period in which Mahavira lived was undoubtedly an age of acute intellectual upheaval in the cultural history of India; and among his contemporaries there were such religious teachers as Kesha Kambalin, Makkhali Gosala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Purana Kassapana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Tathagata Buddha. Mahavira inherited a good deal from earlier Tirthankaras. He left behind not only a systematic religion and philosophy but also a well-knit social order of ascetics and lay followers who earnestly followed and practiced what he and his immediate disciples preached.
Buddha and Mahavira lived in the same age and moved about in the same area with the same dynasties and rulers in view. They stressed the dignity of man as man, and preached to the masses in their own language high moral ideals which advanced the individual on the spiritual plane and further contributed to social solidarity. To posterity, they are the best representatives of the Eastern or Magadhan religion, or what is generally called the Shramanic culture; the basic literature embodying their utterances, has luckily survived to us. A comparative study of the early Jain and Buddhist works presents a remarkable similarity and breathes verily the same religious and moral spirit which as not only stood the test of time for the last two thousand years and the solution of many a human problem. Truth and non-violence as preached and practiced by the background of the moral code preached by Mahavira and Buddha. The references to the Nirgrantha tenets in the Pali canon are of great value for assessing the relation of Jainism and Buddhism.
Apparently there was so much in common between Buddha and Mahavira, that early European scholars mistook them for one individual. But to-day, with progress of studies, they stand before us as two distinct personalities who have left an abiding influence on the history of Indian thought. Buddha, it has to be noted, experimented with many teachers prior to his enlightenment, and discovered the Middle Path, after rejecting much of religious thought current round about him. That was not the case with Mahavira. The religion preached by Vrishabha, Neminatha and his immediate predecessor Parshva (who flourished just a couple of centuries before Mahavira) was already inherited by him and he presented it for contemporary society. Buddha is less compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, because he started with the conviction that he had personally discovered something new for humanity. But Mahavira was more accommodating nd compromising and quite willing to understand the point of view of others, primarily because he was preaching an earlier religion, may be for a slightly different order of monks and laymen. “It is evident,” as Jacobi has remarked, “that both Mahavira and Buddha have made use of the interest and support of their families to propagate their Order. Their prevalence over other rivals was certainly due in some degree to their connection with the chef families of the country.” Buddha had a longer lease of life: he lived for full eighty years; while Mahavira lived only 72 years. The middle path of Buddha struck a note of novelty and inspired so much enthusiasm among his new followers that its influence spread far and wide. Mahavira, however, had to preach both to old and new followers, and obviously he must have been guided by a spirit of compromise: the question of new recruits was not with him as urgent as it was with Buddha. There is evidence, further confirmed by close similarity between Jaina and Buddhist monastic rules, that Buddha did try the Nirgrantha way of living for a while, obviously the one preached long before by Parshvanatha. As observed by Jacobi “niganthas (Nirgranthas), now better known under the name of Jainas or Arhatas, already existed as an important sect at the time when the Buddhist church was being founded.” The Pali canon refers to Mahavira as Niggantha Nataputta. Both Mahavira and Buddha thus started their careers with the same capital of Shramanic ideology, but differed later on in details, and so also their followers with changing times and places. The subsequent history of Jainism and Buddhism, the former confining itself primarily to India but still surviving as a living institution and the latter spreading with remarkable zeal practically all over the Eastern hemisphere but losing its bearings in the very land of its birth, has its seeds to be sought in their earlier beginnings outlined above. It is absolutely necessary that the doctrines of Buddha and Mahavira be studied in more detail than is done ordinarily by the educated man.
The history of the Jaina Church has many a bright spot here and there. After Mahavira the Church was led by a series of eminent monks and received patronage from kings like Shrenika, Bimbisara, Chandragupta Maurya, etc. Many religious monks, ruling dynasties, wealth traders and pious families have contributed to the stability and continuity of Jaina Church with the result that India can feel proud of the Jaina contributions both to its civilization and culture in matters of art, architecture, literature and moral code.
The preachings of Mahavira are embedded in the canonical texts, and they are interpreted by series of commentaries known as Niryuktis, Curnis, Bhashyas and Tikas. Individual topic are discussed in manuals and further illustrated by extensive narrative literatures. The doctrines are logically defended by a number of authors in comparison with and contrast to other Indian systems. Jaina contributions to Indian literature embrace various subjects; and they are spread in different languages like Prakrits (including Apabhramsha), Sanskrit, Tamil, kannada, Old Hindi, Old Gujarati, etc. Jaina authors have considered language only as means to an end; they never invested any one language with religious sanctity. Thanks to their broad outlook, they could make salient contributions to Sanskrit and Prakrit; and how they have enriched Tamil and Kannada, at least the learned audience here needs no further elaboration from me. Buhler wrote many years back about Jaina literature in this manner: “In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles-letters the achievements of Jainas have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their works are of importance for European Science even to-day. In the South where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil and Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jaina monks. Thought his activity has led them far away from their own particular aims, yet it has secured for them an important place in the history of Indian literature and civilization.” This prophetic observation of that great German scholar is not only fully borne out, but latter finds and researches have also shown that if Buhler had lived to-day, he would have been more eloquent on the Jaina contributions to Indian Literature. With such meticulous care and perseverance the Jainas have preserved MS. collections in places like Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Pattan and Moodbidri that these are a part of our national wealth. They built these collections with such an academic and catholic outlook, that there was hardly any place for religious bias. It must be said to the credit of the builders of the great collections at Jaisalmer and Pattan that it is here that we could trace certain original Buddhist works which otherwise were known to us only from Tibetian translations.
A dispassionate and critical study of Jaina literature enables one to get a fair idea of the Jaina outlook or view of life. By the Jaina view of life we mean the view of life sanctioned by Jainism as apparent from an objective and judicious interpretation of the fundamentals of Jaina metaphysics and ethics, and not the outlook on the life which the followers of Jainism generally have to-day.
Metaphysically speaking, all souls, according to their stage of spiritual evolution or progress (in terms of Gunasthanas) have a legitimate place on the path of religion; everyone’s position is determined by his Karmic limitations, and his progress depends on his potentialities. The Jaina God is neither a creator of the universe nor a dispenser of favors and frowns. He is a spiritual ideal, but also a being who has reached absolute perfection. If He is praised and worshipped, it is with a view to remembering His virtues, so that we may cultivate them in ourselves and attain the same status. Every soul must reap the fruits, pleasant or painful, of all it has done; for it is, in the last analysis, the architect of its own fortune. The question of exchanging one’s sins or merits with any other soul is irrelevant. Now, clearly such an attitude does not leave one at the mercy of an outside agency, divine or semi-divine and enables one to work with confidence and hope. The individual, however criminal under the stress of internal and external forces, need not despair because he is latently divine, and a day will come when he will realize himself.
Jainism lays down certain ethical standards which are duly graded, for the uplift of the individual as a social being. As long as he lives as a member of society, betterment, he owes to himself for his spiritual betterment, he owes a good deal to the society in which he is living; but if he relinquishes the world and leads the life of an ascetic, hi ties with society and his responsibilities towards it are considerably reduced. In Jainism, the duties of a householder are in miniature those of a monk; and a householder, while duly carrying out his household duties, rises steadily to the status of a monk.
Ahimsa is the most important principle that permeates the Jaina outlook on life. In simple language it means the greatest possible kindness towards the animate world. Jainism has prepared a graded series of living beings; and a religious person has to strive his best to minimise harm to them. Every living beings has a sanctity and a dignity of its own; and one has to respect it as one expects one’s own dignity to be respected. A man of kindly temperament sheds around him an atmosphere of kindness. Jainism has firmly held that life is sacred irrespective of species, caste, color, creed or nationality. A resident of Hiroshima or Nagasaki is as sacred as one in New York or London: what his color is, what he eats, and how he dresses-these are external adjuncts. Thus the practice of Ahimsa is both an individual and a collective virtue; and this kindly attitude, which requires that our hearts be free from baser impulses like anger, pride, hypocrisy, greed, envy and contempt, has a positive force and universal appeal.
The second virtue which Jaina ethics lays stress on is good neighborliness; one should speak the truth and respect the right of property. It is thus that one becomes trustworthy in society, and at the same time creates an atmosphere of security for others. One’s thoughts, words and acts must be consistent with each other; and they must, further, create an atmosphere of confidence and a reciprocal sense of security must start with the immediate neighbour and then be gradually diffused in society at large, not only in theory but also in practice. These virtues can go to constitute coherent social and political groups of worthy citizens who yearn for peaceful co-existence with the well-being of the entire humanity in view.
The third virtue is a steady and progressive restraint on acquisitiveness which manifests itself either in the form of yearning for sensual or sex pleasure, or for acquisition of property. This virtue is to be practiced in different degrees at different stages of one’s spiritual or religious progress. An ideally religious man is entirely free from acquisitiveness in thought, word and deed; his last vestige of property is his body alone, and his wants are the minimum required to sustain it; and this too he voluntarily relinquishes in the end when he finds that it gives him no more aid in the practice of religion. Pursuit of pleasure as an endless game; individual inclinations and passions must be duly trained and curbed; thus indeed does one get mental poise and spiritual balance. A voluntary limitation of property is community virtue which results in social justice and fair distribution of utility commodities. The strong and the rich should not weed out the weak and the poor but put such voluntary restriction on their instincts and possessions that the underprivileged too have a fair chance in life. Any attempt to enforce these qualities by an external and legal authority, either on the individual or society, will lead to hypocrisy or secret criminal tendencies. It is for sensible individuals to practice these virtues, and thus set an example from which an enlightened society will gradually be developed.
There are many elements which go to constitute the intellectual make-up of an individual; his inheritance, environment, upbringing, studies and experiences. It is this intellectual make-up that shapes his convictions and opinions: if he lacks in intellectual honesty and integrity of expression, these latter may get perverted. All these, moreover, get a different coloring according to the motives and ambitions of individuals, singly or collectively. This is why one finds that unanimity of opinion or agreement in views is very scarce. For most of us, even presuming that all of us are sincere, it is easier, nay almost natural, to differ rather than agree on any given topic. To meet this situation, Jainism has presented to the world two significant instruments of understanding and expression: one is the Nayavada and the other, Syadvada. The Nayavada enables one to analyse the various points of view and appraises their relative validity: it is a remarkable method for the analytical comprehension of a complex question. Naya is a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular view of the totality, and it should not be mistaken for the whole. A synthesis of these different viewpoints is an imperative necessity; therein every view point must retain its relative position; and this need is fulfilled by Syadvada. One can say ‘yes,’ of say ‘no’ or even express one’s inability to state anything: these three basic statements, when combined, can give rise to seven predications which are qualified by the term ‘syat’ or ‘may be,’ indicating the limits of understanding and expression. Syadvada, in course of the process of assertion or denial curbs down and harmonizes the absolute viewpoints of individual Nayas. “Syadvada,” says Professor A. B. Dhruva, “is not a doctrine of speculative interest, one intended to solve a mere ontological problem, but has a bearing upon man’s physiological and spiritual life.” It has supplied the philosopher with catholicity of thought, convincing him that Truth is not anybody’s monopoly with tariff walls of denominational religion, while furnishing the religious aspirant with the virtue of intellectual toleration which is a part of that Ahimsa which is one of the fundamental tenets of Jainism.
Human beings have limited knowledge and inadequate expression. That is why different doctrines are inadequate; at the most they are one-sided views of the Truth which cannot be duly enclosed in words and concepts. Jainism has always held that it is wrong, if not dangerous to presume that one’s own creed alone represents the truth. Toleration is, therefore, the characteristic of Jaina ideology. Even the Jaina monarchs and generals have a slean and commendable record to their credit I this regard. The political history of India knows no cases of persecution by Jaina kings, even when Jaina monks and laymen have suffered at the hands of other religionists of fanatical temper. Dr. Saletore has rightly observed: “The principle of Ahimsa was partly responsible for the greatest contribution of the Jainas to Hindu culture-that relating to toleration. Whatever may be said concerning the rigidity with which they maintained their religious tenets and the tenacity and skill with which they met and defeated their opponents in religious disputations, yet it cannot be denied that the Jainas fostered the principle of toleration more sincerely and at the same time more successfully than any other community in India.”
Time was when man was at the mercy of nature; to-day, however, he has dived deep into the mysteries of nature and become her master instead of her slave. There is such rapid progress in the various branches of science; and the scientist’s achievements in nuclear physics and atomic weapons are so astounding tat, if he is intends, he can destroy the entire human race and change the face of the earth. Thus, to-day, the human race is standing on the verge of catastrophe; its mind is getting befogged and bewildered; and it is rushing towards the very precipice which it wants to avoid. Obviously, we are required to revalue our values.
The progress of science is the corollary of an attempt to achieve greater happiness for man. But, unfortunately, man as man is not properly understood; of language. By the term “man” many have only “the white man” in view; and such an attitude is subversive of all ethical standards. If some parts of the world are apparently more civilized, very often it is at the cost of the other parts. Co-operative and collective amelioration of the entire mankind has to take the place of colonial exploitation. The sanctity and dignity of mankind have to be recognized in preference to our separate affluence and supremacy. Scientific skill must be accompanied by a saint’s wisdom. Thus man has to understand man as man. In this technically unified world, there is very little difference between oneself and others; I wish well to myself, that is practicable, only if I wish well to others. The doctrine of Ahimsa, if rightly understood and sincerely practiced, supplies the necessary basis for this humanitarian outlook of a world-citizen.
The organized atrocities of man need not make us despair. The doctrine of Karma tells us that we are the architects of our own fortune. It is for us to look into ourselves, analyse our motives, estimate our objectives, both individually and collectively, without slavishly prostrating ourselves before any power for fear or favour; and thus work on with confidence and hope that man must progress for his existence and betterment. Every individually has the potentiality of the divine, and it is for him to realize this by following the path of religion. Physical science and technical skill have given us power, and it is for us now to choose whether we want to make forward progress for the betterment of man and his environment or just reduce ourselves to a heap of radio-active ashes.
Good neighborliness and restraint on the acquisitive instinct are a contagious virtue: what is true of an individual is also true of a group, social or political. The man who does not know himself and refuses to know another an as man can never live at peace with himself or, obviously, at peace with others. A clear understanding of onself and of others can alone remove mutual suspicion and counterbalance the constant threat of war, thus leading us to a true condition of peaceful co-existence.
To-day, liberty of thought and speech is increasingly getting crippled in a subtle manner. Tendentious propaganda not only conceals but also perverts the apparent facts, and the world is put on a wrong track. This means that the thinking man has to keep himself vigilant, understand the limitations of his knowledge and thus learn to respect the viewpoint of others, as laid down by Nayavada and Syadvada. Let us ot lose faith in man as man, and let us learn to respect each other as man. We must see that man lives under healthy and progressive conditions as a world-citizen. The basic principles of Jainism (such as Ahimsa, Vratas, Nayavada and Syadvada), if correctly understood and earnestly put into practice, can make one a worthy citizen of the world
Jain connections in Cholas
An Inscription of Rajendra II, belonging to the 11th Century, has been found in Kailasanathar temple at Deepankudi in Kodavasal taluk in Tiruvrur district recently.
G.Thillai Govindarajan, Headmaster, Panchayat Union Primary school, Kothankudi, who is carrying out a project with the aid of New Delhi Nehru Trust of Indian Collections under the title "Jainism in Thanjavur district" has found the inscription during the field study.
The inscription belonging to the period of Rajendra II, is found in a pillar of six ft height in the temple premises which is under renovation. Inscription is engraved in all the four sides of the pillar. It starts with the praising of the King. It registers about donations offered to the presiding deity, Kailasanatha of Siva temple by Arulmozhinangai, sister of Rajendra II and the daughter of Rajendra I. On her behalf, it was inscribed by Aramabanandi, a Jain who belonged to Deepankudi temple. The inscription also records about the donations for offering rice, vegetables and curd rice daily for the presiding deity. The Jain temple of Deepankudi is in worship now.
An inscription found in Sttambur near Chenji in Tamil Nadu speaks about a Jain known as Aramanandi.
G.Thillai Govindarajan, Headmaster, Panchayat Union Primary school, Kothankudi, who is carrying out a project with the aid of New Delhi Nehru Trust of Indian Collections under the title "Jainism in Thanjavur district" has found the inscription during the field study.
The inscription belonging to the period of Rajendra II, is found in a pillar of six ft height in the temple premises which is under renovation. Inscription is engraved in all the four sides of the pillar. It starts with the praising of the King. It registers about donations offered to the presiding deity, Kailasanatha of Siva temple by Arulmozhinangai, sister of Rajendra II and the daughter of Rajendra I. On her behalf, it was inscribed by Aramabanandi, a Jain who belonged to Deepankudi temple. The inscription also records about the donations for offering rice, vegetables and curd rice daily for the presiding deity. The Jain temple of Deepankudi is in worship now.
An inscription found in Sttambur near Chenji in Tamil Nadu speaks about a Jain known as Aramanandi.
Oct 24, 2009
Kashtha Sangha Bhattarakas of Gwalior and Agrawal Shravakas (1)
Note: Additional information is available on Kashtha Sangha, which Iwill share later.
The Kashtha Sangh was eventually replaced by Mula Sangh in Gwaliorregion. The Agrawal Shravakas eventually mostly became ajain.
Yashwant Malaiya
-----From a text by Dr. K. C. Jain
Kashtha Sangha - Of the twin Sanghas working in Northern India duringour period Kashtha has been traced from the village Kashtha, nearDelhi, on the bank of the Jamuna. The early record of the activitiesof the Kashtha Sangha which originated from Mathura as a matter offact, is not available in regular sequence except in the existenceof metallic images of the Tomara period in, Gwalior in the eleventhcentury. Madhava Sena, pattadhara of Pratap Sena is said to, haveachieved victory in debate at the court of Alauddin Khilji. Earliestdate of a Kashtha Bhattarak, made available, is that of Vimalasena,the consecrator of two images of the fourteenth century A.D. tracedin Jaipur and Delhi dated 1357 and 1371 A.D. respectively. Names ofhis successors on the patta, yielded by the Kashtha Sangha Pattavali,are Dharmasena of Hissar.15 Bhavasena and Sahasrakirti until we cometo Gunakirti whose known date is V. 1460 = 1403 A.D. when PanditKhemal Khandelwal had presented a copy of the Uttarpurana ofPushpadanta to Gunakirti.
Gunakirti (1403-24) : With Gunakirti; we are on sure grounds aboutthe activities of the Kashtha Sangha in Gwalior for reasons whichapply equally to Bhattaraks of all Sanghas during this periodincluding the Mula Sangha which also flourished simultaneously inGwalior with exemplary fraternity16 during a period when its Kashthacounterpart of the Mathur gachchha had completely dominated thereligious life of the Jaina Samaj in the fifteenth century rule ofthe patronizing Tomaras in the background of the religio-literaryachievements of the Poet-Laureate, Mahakavi Raidhu. With thedisintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the provincial kingdoms,independent in all respects, proved to be the best patrons of theJaina local culture as we have seen in the case of the neighbouringMandogarh ruled by the Turkish families of Ghoris and Khilchis.Simultaneously with Malwa, the Jaina Samaj of Gwalior not onlycultivated their time-honoured idolatry on a grand extensive scalebut a prolific devotee of Saraswati in Gwalior like Raidhu couldleave behind single handed the Mandn-Sangram-Punja trinity ofMandogarh in the realm of idolatrous literary production. The creditfor all this distinction and development in Gwalior goes to theKashthasanghi Bhataraks in general and to Gunakirti and his discipleyounger brother Yashahkirit in particular.
Gunakirti was distinguished equally well in learning, penance andresulting influence that he wielded on the local Rajput rulers of histimes and their senior ministers and treasurers of the Jaina Agrawalcommunity as per the tributes paid to his qualities of head and heartby Raidhu and the writer of the Kashtha Pattavali document.Extraordinary penance, practised by him, had reduced him to anemaciated being. The extensive carving of images, small andcolossal, accomplished with a vengeance during the reign of DungarSinha (1425 = 59 A.D.) was originally inspired by Gunakirti and hisdisciples.
Yashahakirti (1429-53) : Yashahakirit happens to be a younger brotherand disciple of Bhattarak Gunakirti - a writer of good hand andscholar of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhransh in which last his fourworks from his pen are extant. He has been extolled in the pattavaliand by the poet Raidhu who regarded him as his 'mantra guru'. He isknown as the transcriber of the decayed and ragged fragment of thefamous Harivansha Purana of Mahakavi Swayambhudeva which he copiedout with the permission of his guru, sitting in a temple in thevicinity of Gwalior at Kumaranagar (now Khumharapura) on the bank ofthe river Murar (1521 = 1464), completing the missing portion of themanuscript with his own composition. This autograph transcript ofYashahakirti is preserved in the Bhandarkar Oriental ResearchInstitute, Poona.17 Himself the author of the four Apabhransha worksextant today, Yashahakirti encouraged Radihu to compose manyApabhransha Kavya and caused the Jaina Seths of Delhi and Hissar toget chiselled the colossal images of Gwalior fort by skilledhandicraftsmen.
After Yashahakirti Bh. Malayakirti (1453-68 A.D.) and Bh. Gunabhadra(1468-83) occupied the Kashtha gaddi of Gwalior of which the latteris the author of fifteen Apabhransha Kathas, preserved in thePanchayati Mandir of the Khajur Masjid, Delhi but written in aGwalior temple. The pattadhar of Gunabhadra. Bh. Bhanukirti was alsothe author of a Katha called Ravivrat Katha.
The pattavali of Gwalior gaddi referred to by Parmanand Shastri18seems to be incomplete. After Bhanukirti the name of Kamalkirti hasbeen introduced followed by names of Bhattaraks which seem to bethose of the Hissar patta of the Kashtha Sangha including the name ofKamala Kirti who was the 'diksha-guru' of Raidhu and who establishedthe Sonagiri patta of the Gwalior gaddi on which his discipleShubhachandra was seated as its first pattadhara (1449-73). In thenon-availability of further link in the personnel of the Bhattarakasof the Kashtha Sangha we have to stop here and take up the activityof the Kashtha Sangha which constitutes virtually the Golden Age ofthe Jaina Digambara Church in Gwalior under the Tomara rulersinspired by the Kashtha Bhattarakas and their Jaina Agrawal discipleswho dominated the Court of father and son viz. Dungar Singh (1425-59)and Kirti Singh (1459-80) with the Poet-Laureate Raidhu as theirmouthpiece and spokesman, a centenarian author of as many as thirtybooks, big and small of which two dozen are reported to be extanttoday. Verify the advent of the Hisar-Firuza-based Jaina Agrawals whofunctioned as the ministers and treasurers of the ruling family hadturned the Rajput State of Gwalior into a Digambara Jaina Centre parexcellence representing the culture of the Agrawal multi-millionnershravakas as sponsored by them. It was a great achievement of theKashtha Sanghi Bhattaraks in which they excelled their their MulaSanghi counterparts of the Dhilli 'patta, the shravakas leavingbehind their Svetambara rivals of Mandogarh in the literary fieldthanks to the single handed efforts of the long lived Mahakavi Raidhuas also in the realm of image carving in general and the chisellingof the calossal images of the Gwalior Fort in particular in which thecontribution of the two Tomara rulers between themselves has left arecord of constant activities spreading over a long period of thirty-three years.
The Kashtha Sangh was eventually replaced by Mula Sangh in Gwaliorregion. The Agrawal Shravakas eventually mostly became ajain.
Yashwant Malaiya
-----From a text by Dr. K. C. Jain
Kashtha Sangha - Of the twin Sanghas working in Northern India duringour period Kashtha has been traced from the village Kashtha, nearDelhi, on the bank of the Jamuna. The early record of the activitiesof the Kashtha Sangha which originated from Mathura as a matter offact, is not available in regular sequence except in the existenceof metallic images of the Tomara period in, Gwalior in the eleventhcentury. Madhava Sena, pattadhara of Pratap Sena is said to, haveachieved victory in debate at the court of Alauddin Khilji. Earliestdate of a Kashtha Bhattarak, made available, is that of Vimalasena,the consecrator of two images of the fourteenth century A.D. tracedin Jaipur and Delhi dated 1357 and 1371 A.D. respectively. Names ofhis successors on the patta, yielded by the Kashtha Sangha Pattavali,are Dharmasena of Hissar.15 Bhavasena and Sahasrakirti until we cometo Gunakirti whose known date is V. 1460 = 1403 A.D. when PanditKhemal Khandelwal had presented a copy of the Uttarpurana ofPushpadanta to Gunakirti.
Gunakirti (1403-24) : With Gunakirti; we are on sure grounds aboutthe activities of the Kashtha Sangha in Gwalior for reasons whichapply equally to Bhattaraks of all Sanghas during this periodincluding the Mula Sangha which also flourished simultaneously inGwalior with exemplary fraternity16 during a period when its Kashthacounterpart of the Mathur gachchha had completely dominated thereligious life of the Jaina Samaj in the fifteenth century rule ofthe patronizing Tomaras in the background of the religio-literaryachievements of the Poet-Laureate, Mahakavi Raidhu. With thedisintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the provincial kingdoms,independent in all respects, proved to be the best patrons of theJaina local culture as we have seen in the case of the neighbouringMandogarh ruled by the Turkish families of Ghoris and Khilchis.Simultaneously with Malwa, the Jaina Samaj of Gwalior not onlycultivated their time-honoured idolatry on a grand extensive scalebut a prolific devotee of Saraswati in Gwalior like Raidhu couldleave behind single handed the Mandn-Sangram-Punja trinity ofMandogarh in the realm of idolatrous literary production. The creditfor all this distinction and development in Gwalior goes to theKashthasanghi Bhataraks in general and to Gunakirti and his discipleyounger brother Yashahkirit in particular.
Gunakirti was distinguished equally well in learning, penance andresulting influence that he wielded on the local Rajput rulers of histimes and their senior ministers and treasurers of the Jaina Agrawalcommunity as per the tributes paid to his qualities of head and heartby Raidhu and the writer of the Kashtha Pattavali document.Extraordinary penance, practised by him, had reduced him to anemaciated being. The extensive carving of images, small andcolossal, accomplished with a vengeance during the reign of DungarSinha (1425 = 59 A.D.) was originally inspired by Gunakirti and hisdisciples.
Yashahakirti (1429-53) : Yashahakirit happens to be a younger brotherand disciple of Bhattarak Gunakirti - a writer of good hand andscholar of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhransh in which last his fourworks from his pen are extant. He has been extolled in the pattavaliand by the poet Raidhu who regarded him as his 'mantra guru'. He isknown as the transcriber of the decayed and ragged fragment of thefamous Harivansha Purana of Mahakavi Swayambhudeva which he copiedout with the permission of his guru, sitting in a temple in thevicinity of Gwalior at Kumaranagar (now Khumharapura) on the bank ofthe river Murar (1521 = 1464), completing the missing portion of themanuscript with his own composition. This autograph transcript ofYashahakirti is preserved in the Bhandarkar Oriental ResearchInstitute, Poona.17 Himself the author of the four Apabhransha worksextant today, Yashahakirti encouraged Radihu to compose manyApabhransha Kavya and caused the Jaina Seths of Delhi and Hissar toget chiselled the colossal images of Gwalior fort by skilledhandicraftsmen.
After Yashahakirti Bh. Malayakirti (1453-68 A.D.) and Bh. Gunabhadra(1468-83) occupied the Kashtha gaddi of Gwalior of which the latteris the author of fifteen Apabhransha Kathas, preserved in thePanchayati Mandir of the Khajur Masjid, Delhi but written in aGwalior temple. The pattadhar of Gunabhadra. Bh. Bhanukirti was alsothe author of a Katha called Ravivrat Katha.
The pattavali of Gwalior gaddi referred to by Parmanand Shastri18seems to be incomplete. After Bhanukirti the name of Kamalkirti hasbeen introduced followed by names of Bhattaraks which seem to bethose of the Hissar patta of the Kashtha Sangha including the name ofKamala Kirti who was the 'diksha-guru' of Raidhu and who establishedthe Sonagiri patta of the Gwalior gaddi on which his discipleShubhachandra was seated as its first pattadhara (1449-73). In thenon-availability of further link in the personnel of the Bhattarakasof the Kashtha Sangha we have to stop here and take up the activityof the Kashtha Sangha which constitutes virtually the Golden Age ofthe Jaina Digambara Church in Gwalior under the Tomara rulersinspired by the Kashtha Bhattarakas and their Jaina Agrawal discipleswho dominated the Court of father and son viz. Dungar Singh (1425-59)and Kirti Singh (1459-80) with the Poet-Laureate Raidhu as theirmouthpiece and spokesman, a centenarian author of as many as thirtybooks, big and small of which two dozen are reported to be extanttoday. Verify the advent of the Hisar-Firuza-based Jaina Agrawals whofunctioned as the ministers and treasurers of the ruling family hadturned the Rajput State of Gwalior into a Digambara Jaina Centre parexcellence representing the culture of the Agrawal multi-millionnershravakas as sponsored by them. It was a great achievement of theKashtha Sanghi Bhattaraks in which they excelled their their MulaSanghi counterparts of the Dhilli 'patta, the shravakas leavingbehind their Svetambara rivals of Mandogarh in the literary fieldthanks to the single handed efforts of the long lived Mahakavi Raidhuas also in the realm of image carving in general and the chisellingof the calossal images of the Gwalior Fort in particular in which thecontribution of the two Tomara rulers between themselves has left arecord of constant activities spreading over a long period of thirty-three years.
Oct 23, 2009
Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2)
Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2): identification of Perur
M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D
Continues from part 1
The question that has to be decided here is the identification ofPerur mentioned in Ganga records. Taken in conjusction with thehistory of the Rattas, the Kongadesarajakkal furnishes proof that itwas on their fall that the Gangas rose to power and began ruling fromSkandapura in Kongudesa (which is the ancient name for the territorycomprising the modern disteicts of Coimbatore and Salem). TheChronicle would even inform us that the last Ratta ruler changed hisreligion from Jainism to Saivism and that was the cause of hisdownfall. Further, all the early activities of Konganivarman-as thefirst historical ruler of the Ganga house becomes known in all therecords of this dynasty-are confined to this Kongudesa.(Kongadesarajakkal (Or Mss. Edn.) pp. 2-3). It is true that we lackdefinite epigraphic evidence in support of this, which we have mainlyonly from the Tamil chronicle above referred to. But it must beremembered that in the first place we have only a few records for theGanga period here referred to; and even the few references that wehave to the early grants of the Gangas seem to refer only to placesin Coimbatore district. Such are places like "Kudluru" to the west ofthe Tatla and east of "Marukarevisaya", in which the names of Kudluruand Marukarevisaya are easily identifiable with the present Gudalurand Madukari in this area. (Kudaluru grant of Madhavavarman; MAR.,1930).
The conclusion naturally follows that Per here referred to as thespot on which Madhava was initiated into Jainism and conferred akingdom on condition that he upheld it through all its confines mustbe the Perur within 3 miles from Coimbatore. We have numerousevidences to show that at the time referred to and for longafterwards this Perur was indeed an important place. The placereferred to by this name cannot be the Perur in Cuddapah district, asRice surmises, where no Jain remains are to be found. The tratditionis that Dadiga and Madhava were sent to the south of Mysore, asalready indicated. Further, the very title assumed by the first ruleras Madhava Konganivarman seems to give an unmistakable proof of thisconclusion, since as the Kongadesarajakkal aptly remarks:
"As wealth, the Kongu country and great
munificence were possessed by him he was
styled srimalt Konganivarman Dharmamahadiraja."(Kongadesarajakkal(Taylor's trans.); MJLS., XIV)
While the mention of Simhanandi as a "person of the southern country'in the inscription at Parsvanatha Basti at Sravana Belgola alreadyreferred to, seems to set the seal upon this conclusion.
to cont.
M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D
Continues from part 1
The question that has to be decided here is the identification ofPerur mentioned in Ganga records. Taken in conjusction with thehistory of the Rattas, the Kongadesarajakkal furnishes proof that itwas on their fall that the Gangas rose to power and began ruling fromSkandapura in Kongudesa (which is the ancient name for the territorycomprising the modern disteicts of Coimbatore and Salem). TheChronicle would even inform us that the last Ratta ruler changed hisreligion from Jainism to Saivism and that was the cause of hisdownfall. Further, all the early activities of Konganivarman-as thefirst historical ruler of the Ganga house becomes known in all therecords of this dynasty-are confined to this Kongudesa.(Kongadesarajakkal (Or Mss. Edn.) pp. 2-3). It is true that we lackdefinite epigraphic evidence in support of this, which we have mainlyonly from the Tamil chronicle above referred to. But it must beremembered that in the first place we have only a few records for theGanga period here referred to; and even the few references that wehave to the early grants of the Gangas seem to refer only to placesin Coimbatore district. Such are places like "Kudluru" to the west ofthe Tatla and east of "Marukarevisaya", in which the names of Kudluruand Marukarevisaya are easily identifiable with the present Gudalurand Madukari in this area. (Kudaluru grant of Madhavavarman; MAR.,1930).
The conclusion naturally follows that Per here referred to as thespot on which Madhava was initiated into Jainism and conferred akingdom on condition that he upheld it through all its confines mustbe the Perur within 3 miles from Coimbatore. We have numerousevidences to show that at the time referred to and for longafterwards this Perur was indeed an important place. The placereferred to by this name cannot be the Perur in Cuddapah district, asRice surmises, where no Jain remains are to be found. The tratditionis that Dadiga and Madhava were sent to the south of Mysore, asalready indicated. Further, the very title assumed by the first ruleras Madhava Konganivarman seems to give an unmistakable proof of thisconclusion, since as the Kongadesarajakkal aptly remarks:
"As wealth, the Kongu country and great
munificence were possessed by him he was
styled srimalt Konganivarman Dharmamahadiraja."(Kongadesarajakkal(Taylor's trans.); MJLS., XIV)
While the mention of Simhanandi as a "person of the southern country'in the inscription at Parsvanatha Basti at Sravana Belgola alreadyreferred to, seems to set the seal upon this conclusion.
to cont.
Oct 22, 2009
The Origin and Culture of Chaturth Jains | Jain Community on Deccan
-Mahavir Sanglikar
Chaturth is the largest caste (endogamous group) in respect of population in Digambar Jain community, and the second largest one in entire Jain community. They overtake Agarwal Jains and Khandelwal Jains in numbers in Digambars and follow Oswals in entire Jain community.
Geographical Spread
Chaturths are concentrated in Southern part of Maharashtra and Northern part of Karnataka, mainly in Sangli, Kolhapur, Belgaum, Solapur, Hubali and Bijapur districts. Beside these districts, they are also found in western Maharashtra and central Karnataka. They are spread over several hundreds of villages in this area. In many villages of their concentration, their density is 40 to 70 percent of the population. Generally such villages are known as ‘Jain Villages’. Most of these villages are in Krishna basin, on the banks of Krishna, Varana, Panchaganga, Doodhganga, Vedganga, Malprabha and other rivers.
Religion
Chaturths are followers of Jainism. As all indigenous south Indian Jains are Digambar Jains, Chaturths also follow the rule. Traditionally they belong to Beespanth, a sub sect of Digambars. They believe in Bhattarak institution. The Jinsen Bhattarak of Nandani Muth is their Chieftain. In last few decades, many chaturths are attracted to Digambar Terapanth. A small number of Chaturths are Veershaiv Lingayats.
Food Habits
A being Jains, the Chaturths are strictly vegetarians. But unlike Gujarati Jains, they are not so strict about eating root vegetables, brinjals etc. However the use of onions and potatoes is very rare.
Bhaakari of Jawar, Soup of Jawar, Pithale, Rice, Aaamati of Tuar Daal, Kheer of rice are some of the common and popular menus in the meals in Chaturth community.
Occupation:
The traditional occupation of Chaturths is cultivation. They are expert and hardworking cultivaters. They take much more crops from their farms than other farmers having same size of land. Sugar Cane and Soya bean are the main crops they cultivate.
They are not big landowners and many families have very small piece of land. It is due to the partition of the lands because of the growing population.
The spread of education has given them more opportunities to work in other fields. So we can see many people from this community working as teachers, engineers, medicos, businessmen, lawyers, skilled workers etc. Teaching is a popular career both in Chaturth men and women.
A considerable number of people from this community also work in Police and Armed Forces. Even women from this community have joined the forces. I know a Chaturth lady who is a Police Officer in New York Police, another one Commissioned Officer in Indian Army. Lot of other Chaturth men and women are working in Maharashtra and Karnataka Police as cops and officers. In armed forces, they are generally seen in Military, while some are in Indian Air Force.
Few families of Chaturths are from lower income group. Many families in villages have no land or have very small land. Generally men and women of this group work as labours in other’s farm or as servants in shops and small business houses.
Milking buffalos is one of the income sources for many Chaturths in villages. In their villages, they have formed Co-Operative milk societies, which collect milk from all over the village and send it to cities.
Origin of Chaturths
The word Chaturth is a Sanskrit word. This is not the original name of this community, as it is not found anywhere in old documents, literature, copper plates and inscriptions. This name has created confusion and many scholars have assumed that the meaning of this word for a community is Shudra (Chaturth= of the fourth Varna= Shudra in the Varna system). But it is a very wrong assumption based on the name, which never existed in older times. In fact, the word Chaturth is a corrupted form of the word Kshatraru. The word Kshatraru is Kannada form of the Sanskrit word Kshatriya or the Prakrit word Chhatri/ Khatri. So it is clear that the name Chaturth is a corrupted form of the word Kshatriya. (Kshatriya>Kshatraru> Chhatar>Chatar>Chatur>Chaturth). It is notable thing that Chaturths traditionally claim that they are Kshatriyas.
In Konkani language, the Kshatriyas are called as Chardo. There is a community called Chardo in Goa and according to some scholars, Chaturths and Chardos are the same people.
It is notable that Chaturths are known as Jains and not as Chaturths in general.
It is notable that the Chaturths are living in Southern part of Maharashtra and Northern part of Karnataka for many centuries. The Nandani Jain Mutt is related to Chaturths. This Mutt was founded by Acharya Jinsen (10th Century). Acharya Jinsen was the Guru of the Rashtrakut King Amoghvarsha.. This region was ruled by various Jain dynasties, namely Kadambs, Rashtrakuts, Ratts, Chalukyas, Kalchuris and Shilahars.
Every Chaturth family has a recorded genealogy, which is preserved by the Helavis, a community that keeps genealogical records of various families in South Maharashtra and north Karnataka. According to the Helavis, their forefathers were told to keep the records of genealogies by King Bijjal, a Jain King of Kalchuri clan. (13th century). These records give lineage of the forefathers of Chaturth families, usually containing record of 20 to 40 generations.
Moreover, most of the Chaturth family names (Surnames) are related to the higher posts in village administration system. Patil is one of the famous family name in this community, which was used for village chieftain. Another family name found in Chaturth is Desai, which was used for the chief of regional group of villages. The main duty of Desais was to collect tax from the villages of his specific area. There are some other such surnames in Chaturths, like Magdum (Record Keeper) Chougule (Assistant of Patil), Khot (Village Chieftain) etc., which show designations. The designation name Patil was given by Deccan Muslim rulers, before that we find the words Gowda, Gaund, Gounda and Gawada for village chieftains. The notable thing is that these words except Gawada are found as suffixes to the first names of men in all genealogies of Chaturth families. The words Gowda, Gaund and Gounda are also found in various Jain inscriptions, even in the inscriptions at Shravanbelagola.
Historical records of Maharashtra and Karnataka show that forefathers of Chaturths were high profile Civil and military officers in the reign of Ratts, Shilahars, Devgiri Yadavs, Adilshahi, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Sambhaji, Rajaram and Shahu Maharaj.
All this suggests that there is no reason to believe that Chaturths are Shudras. It also totally discards the belief that Chaturth means are follower of Chaturyam Dharm (Four ford religion preached by Teerthankar Parshwanath), as the word Chaturth is a latest one for this community, and they never followed Chaturyam dharm, but Panchyam Dharm.
According to some scholars, Pancham was the only caste of Jains in south India, which was later divided into 4 castes namely Chaturths, Panchams, Kasars and Saitwals. This is a wrong statement based on just assumptions. There is no inscriptional, genealogical or literary proof for it. The scholars, who invented this theory, have written that there is no Chaturth caste in Veershaiv Lingayats. This is a false statement as we can see many Chaturths in Veershaiv Lingayats.
The Saitwals find their origin in North India and there are no links between Saitwals and others communities mentioned above. Moreover, some surnames of Saitwals suggest that they are the oldest Jains of Maharashtra. It should be noted that they are not bilinguals and we can call them Pure Marathi people. Their physical features are also different from that of Chaturths and Panchams. On the other hand, although Kasars are some time called as Panchams, their recorded history in Kalika Puran shows that they are not Panchams.
Although there are some similarities between surnames of Chaturths and Panchams, it should be noted that these surnames are designation names and not clan names. Chaturth is purely a cultivator caste, while Pancham is a Merchant caste. Panchams are descendents of Bir Banij, the famous merchant group of Medieval Deccan. Further, in the genealogical records no same origin of Chaturths and Panchams is traced.
Chaturths are Gowdas
In South Karnataka, there is a cultivator community famously known as Gowdas. There are many similarities between these Gowdas and the Chaturths. Most of the Gowdas were following Jainism until recent past. Still now, some sections of these Gowda people are strictly vegetarians and some are following Jainism. Some Gowdas are being reconverted to Jainism. This occurs mainly in the Gangatakar/ Gangadikara and Namdhari subcastes of Gowdas.
The word Gowda is used as a suffix to the first name in Gowda community. On the other hand, as I have written above, we can find the word Gowda, Gaund, Gounda (which have the same meaning) in all the genealogies of Chaturths. These words are still used as suffixes in rural areas in Chaturth community. One of my friends Mr. Rajendra Paygonda Patil residing at Samdoli, a Jain village near Sangli, has a genealogical record of 25 generations of his forefathers. Out of the 61 names found in that genealogy, 58 names have been suffixed by Gowda,Gownda or Gonda. The notable thing is that in first 19 generations, only Gowda suffix is found. After 20th generation only the suffix Gownda or Gonda occurs. I have seen many of the genealogies different Chaturth families and found the suffix Gowda everywhere.
It is notable that Gowdas are known as Vokkaliga Gowdas, and the Chaturths also were known as Vokkaligas a century ago
There are many other similarities between Chaturths and Gowdas. Both the communities are traditionally cultivators. Gowdas are Kannada speaking, and Chaturths too. Although the Chaturths in Maharashtra have adopted Marathi language, they are originally Kannada speakers, and now speak both Kannada and Marathi at home in rural areas. Both the communities have high rank designations in village administration system. The most important thing is that both the communities have similar body structure/ physical features like complexion, height, head size and nasal index.
An interesting thing is that the Jains of Kerala, which are mostly found in Waynad district, are known as Gowdars. They have matrimonial relations with Jain Gowdas of South Karnataka.
So, I am sure that the Gowdas and Chaturths are the same people. Gowdas of North Karnataka are now being known as Chaturths..
Chaturths: Migrations and Settlements
The oldest known migration was from north India to Karnataka, when the Dravidians were migrated towards South India, due to invasion of Vedic Aryans. As the Gowdas and Chaturths are from the same stock, the ancient migration history of Gowdas is applicable to Chaturths also.
A migration of this community to North Karnataka from Moodbidri took place when Jainism declined in Moodbidri region. In this migration, some Jains of this region went to Kostal Karnataka while many others wend to Northern part of Karnataka. They settled on the banks of river Krishna and her tributaries like Varana, Panchganga, Malprabha, Doodhganga, Vedganga etc.
An inscription of Kolhapur Shilahar General Nimbras (13th Century) states that he colonized many villages nearby Kolhapur by inviting staunch Jains to this area. That also was an important migration of Chaturth community.
There was another migration when Basava, a Brahmin Prime Minister of Kaluchiri king Bijjal killed the King. Bijjal was a Jain king ruling from Kalyan in Bidar district of North Karnataka. Basava was founder of Veershaivism. After the assassination of Bijjal, there was a civil war between Jains and Veershaiv Lingayats. At this time many Chaturth families migrated to South Maharashtra (Sangli, Kolhapur) and North Karnataka (Belgavi).
Genealogical records of Chaturth families show that they came in present area from Salbidri, Talikota etc.of Bijapur District. The Helavis (genealogy tellers) say that these families migrated due to conflicts with Adil Shah of Bijapur.
It is a question, that why these people migrated to south Maharashtra and North Karnataka from Salbidri/ Talikot araea. The most probable reason is that there were prior settlements of Jains in this area and the migrants found this area safer to settle. It is notable that Shilahars of Kolhapur, who were follower of Jainism, ruled this area (10th to 13th Century C.E.). The earliest migrations to this area we know are in 13th century when conflicts between Jains and Veershaiv Lingayats took place in Bijapur and Koppal region.
After settling in South Maharashtra and Belgavi district of Karnataka, there were a lot of local migrations when some Chaturth families eventually settled in nearby villages of the same region. Such families adopted the names of their prior villages as surnames.
The latest migrations of Chaturth families are towards Pune, Thane, Mumbai, Nashik, Aurangabad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra, to Panji and Madgaon of Goa and to Bangaluru city of Karnataka. There are migrations also towards district headquarters like Sangli, Kolhapur, Belgaum, Hubli etc. from nearby villages. This is due to less scope in cultivation and availability of more opportunities in various fields in the cities. As there is a high literacy rate in Chaturth community, having professional and technical skills, they are getting more and more opportunities outside their region. A considerable number of Chaturths have migrated even towards United States, Canada, North America, Europe, Australia and other countries of the Globe.
Religious Conversions
In the period of the known history of last 1000 years, many Chaturth families were converted to other faiths.
One of the major conversions of Chaturths was to Veershaivism. Veershaivism got a firm support from people of all creeds in North Karnatka. Many Chaturth families adopted this new faith. We can see many Chaturth families in North Karnataka and southern parts of Kolhapur district of Maharshtra are followers of Veershaivism and are known as Chaturth Lingayats. It is a well-known fact that that many Chaturth Jain families and Chaturth Lingayat families are descendents of same forefathers. The records kept by the Helavis confirm this fact.
It is said that the Jain Bhattaraks of the medieval age were collecting huge money from Jain families in villages. Many Jain families denied paying money. These Bhattaraks expelled such families from Jain community and forced them to become Veershaiv Lingayats.
In Portuguese period, almost all the Chardos (Chaturths) in Goa were converted to Christianity.
In the reign of Adilshah of Bijapur Saltnat, many Chaturth families were forcefully converted to Islam. Some Chaturths adopted Islam for political benefits. All this happened mainly in Bijapur, the Capital of the saltnat.
Some genealogical records show that some Chaturth families got converted to Maratha caste of Hindus.
Names and Surnames
Most of the first names of Chaturth males and females are like the names of common names of the Indian people of this area. But there are some first names, which are found especially in Jain community. Chaturths proudly name their children with such names, which include Mahavir, Bharat, Bahubali, Neminath, Goutam, Rishabh, Shrenik, Rajmati, Rajul, Chelana, Chandana etc. In previous generation, they named their children as Nemgonda, Nemanna, Shantappa, Jinappa, Shrimati, Shripal. Bhupal etc.
We can classify surnames or family names of Chaturth community in four categories.
a. Designation Names: These family names are related to their designations in village administration system. Such family names include Desai (Regional Administrator), Nadgouda (Regional Administrator) Patil (Village chief), Choudhari (village chief), Chougule (assistant of Patil), Magdum (Record Keeper), Khot (), Kulkarni (Record Keeper), Deshpande. Last two surnames are not so common in Chaturth community. Some families have Nayak or Naik as surname. Nayak is a Kannada word for leader and it is also a rank in Army.
Patil overtakes all other surnames in this category in surnames.
I have observed that every Chaturth family of this region is descendent of persons bearing the surname Desai.
b. Village Names as surnames: Many Chaturth family names are derived from village names. The number of such names is very big. Some examples of such family names are: Akkole (from akkol village), Rukade (from Rukadi village), Shedbale (from Shedbal Village), Ankale (from Ankali village), Udgave (from Udgav village), Kumbhojakar (from Kumbhoj village, Chiprikar (from village Chipri), Ankalikar from village Ankali), Nandanikar (from village Nandani) etc.
First Names as Surnames: Some surnames are derived from the first names of the persons from whom the branch of family tree started, i.e. Nemanna, Satyanna, Chimanna, Basannavar, etc.
Surnames by Occupations: Such surnames are very rare in Chaturth community. I found Gavali (Milkmaid), Shetti (Merchant) surname of this types in this community.
c. Some surnames were kept because of some incidents.
d. Some surnames of Chaturths are commonly found in the Marathas (a warrior community of Maharashtra). But in Chaturths such surnames are not so common. Such names include Suryavanshi, Chavan, Salunkhe, Shelar, etc. Some Maratha sub clan names like Navale, Lande, Nakate/Nakhate etc. are also found in Chaturths.
e. Some surnames were kept according to the type of house in which the family lived. Such surnames include Doddamani (Big House), Halimani (Old House), Kattimani (House having a katta), Vasamani (New House) etc.
f. The surname ‘Jain’ is rarely used.
There are no clans or gotras in Chaturth community, so there are no clan/gotra names as surnames. Why there are no clans in this community is a subject of research.
Language
Chaturths are basically Kannada speaking people, but now they are bilinguals. The Chaturths of North Karnataka and South Maharashtra speak both the Marathi and Kannada languages. But usage of Kannada language in Chaturths of Maharashtra is on the way out.
Literacy
There is a highest literacy rate amongst this community. Probably it is 100%. A considerable number of Chaturths are in teaching field. They are primary and high school teachers and even professors in colleges. They have founded hundreds of educational institutions in all over South Maharashtra and North Karnataka. This has benefited this community and others in spreading of literacy.
Customs and Traditions
Marriages: parents of the guy and girl generally arrange Marriages in this community. Uapadye, the priest of the Jain temple, performs the marriages. Just few decades ago, marrying with cross cousins was a common practice, but now it is almost disappeared. They also practiced marriages between the girl and her maternal uncle, until some decades ago. This proves the Dravidian origin of Chaturth community. Such marriages are now out of practice.
In villages, the parents of the girl prefer a guy having land for agriculture, even if the guy has a good job in public or private sector, or he is self employed having his own business house. They generally marry in their own caste, but in cities marriages between Chaturths and other Jain castes, especially Panchams, Saitwals, Kasars, Bogars, Humads, kamboj etc. are taking place.
The first known famous marriage of a Chaturth guy outside chaturth community was arranged in 19xx. The girl was from Pancham community, niece of Annasaheb Latthe, a progressive Jain. Annasaheb Latthe was Prime Minister of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur and founder of Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha.
A small number of marriages occur outside Jain community.
In villages, many marriages are performed under ‘Quick Marriage System’ popularly known as ‘Yaadi Mein Shaadi’. In this system, the guy and some of his close relatives go to see a girl, and if both the guy and girl agree to marry, a quick marriage takes place on the same day or within 2-3 days in presence of limited people, generally close relatives.
After the marriage, the bride comes to the house of the parents of the guy and stays there for five days. An elder woman, who is her close relative, accompanies her. Then the bride returns to her parents and stays there for some days. Generally the groom goes to her house and brings her back.
Birth of Child: The pregnant woman generally goes to her father’s house for first delivery. This tradition is ancient one and we can see it in many communities of ancient India.
Namkaran (Naming): The child is named on 12th day of his/ her birth. The paternal aunt (father’s sister) of the child declares the name.
Karnchhedan: A small hole on the lower part of both the ears of the child is made. The village goldsmith performs this act.
Javal/ aliya: The cutting of hairs of the child for first time is called as ‘Jawal Kadhane’ in Marathi and Aliya in Kannad. This ritual is performed in a small function at home by maternal uncle of the child and the village barber.
Sallekhana: Sallekhana is a tradition in Jain community where seriously sick old persons adopt death by fasting. In Chaturth community, this is a widespread tradition.
Chaturth Women:
Chaturth women are educated, homely, and religious, and bear true Jain spirit. Chaturth women in villages are generally orthodox.
Pilgrimage Centers:
Like most of the other Jain communities, in Chaturth Jains also there is a tradition of visiting various Jain pilgrimage centers. Many Chaturth families, individuals and groups visit the most famous pilgrimage centers namely Sammed Shikharaji in Jharkhand, Shravanbelgola in Karnataka and Girnar in Gujarat. They also visit Mangi Tungi, Gajpanth, Ramtek, Kunthalgiri in Maharashtra and Shasraphani Parshwanath, Babanagar, Hombuj Padmavati, Dharmasthal, Kanakgiri and lot of other places in Karnataka.
In there own area also there are some famous Jain pilgrimage centers, which the Chaturths visits many times. Such places include Bahubali and Nadani in Kolhapur district, Kundal in Sangli district, Nandgiri in Satara district, Stavnidhi and Kuppankothali in Belgavi district, and the Belgavi city fort where an ancient royal Jain temple Kamalbasti is situated.
Socio-Religious Organizations
Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha is the most popular and most famous socio-religious organization of Chaturths and other Digambar Jains in South Maharashtra and North Karnataka. This organization was founded in 1999 and works for educational, social and religious causes.
Chaturths in Freedom Movement:
Chaturth community has done a good job in the freedom movement of India. They were mainly associated with the famous freedom fighter Vasant Dada Patil, who later became Chief Minister of Maharashtra. Other group of Chaturths was associated with Krantiveer Nana Patil and Barde Guruji, who succeeded expelling British people from all the districts of Satara and South Satara (now known as Sangli) in 1942.
Rajmati Birnale, a Chaturth Jain girl from Nana Patil’s group was famous for her activities against British rule.
Chaturths in Co-Operative movement
Co-Operative movement in Western Maharashtra and Noth Karnataka has changed social and economical face of these regions. Contribution of Chaturth community is very important in this movement. The Sangli Sahkari Sakhar Karkhana, now known as Vasantdada Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana is one of the biggest co-operative sugar mill in Asia. It was founded by Vasantdada Patil mainly with help of Chaturth farmers in Jain villages in Sangli district. Chaturths also helped to found many sugar mills in Kolhapur district.
The Awade family, belonging to Chaturth community is well known for their contribution in founding co-operative sugar mills, Yarn mills etc. Shamrao Patil Yadravkar of this community also founded a sugar mill.
In every village where Chaturths are in a sufficient numerical strength, have founded various co-operative societies.
Chaturths in Politics:
Most of the Chaturths are traditionally supporters of Congress Party. But eventually they support other secular parties like Rastravadi Congress Party (NCP), Janata Dal and Independent candidates. As the main occupation of Chaturths is cultivation and they are born cultivators, they always support Farmer’s Organizations in their causes. They rarely support Hindutwa parties like BJP and Shivsena.
As Chaturths are effective minority community in their area, their stand is very important in elections. Most of the times, they succeed to elect the candidates they want. In their area of high density, they succeed to elect their own candidates for assembly and parliament.
They get a considerable representation in Zilha Parishads, Taluka Panchayat Samitis, Municipal Corporations and municipalities of this region. So we can see ZP and Panchayat Samiti presidents, Mayors, ZP members and city corporations from this community.
Famous Personalities:
Chaturths have given many great personalities in religious, social, educational and other fields. Acharya Shantisagar, the first Digambar Jain Acharya of this era was from this community. The famous Jain Acharyas Deshbhooshan and Vidyasagar too are from this community.
The most famous personality from Chaturth community is Karmveer Bhaurao Patil. He was an educationalist and social reformer. He founded Rayat Shikshan Sanstha, which is the biggest educational institution of Asia with hundreds of schools, colleges, hostels and other institutions in rural areas of Western Maharashtra. His great grandfather xxx was the chieftain of Nandani Jain Bhattarak seat. Karmveer Bhaurao Patil was felicitated as Padmbhooshan for his great work by the President of India. A commemorative postage stamp on him was also issued by the postal department of India..
List of notable Chaturths:
Nimbaras: Chief of the army of Shilahar King Bhoj II. Nimbaras was famous for his bravery. He fought and won many battles.
Khangouda Desai: A Sardar of Adilshah of Bijapur, later revolted and joined Shivaji’s army. He became a General of Sambhaji.
Hangandi Desai: He was a famous Maratha Saradar at the time of Peshavas.
Karmveer Bhaurao Patil: Educationalist, Social reformer, founder of Rayat Shikshan Sanstha.
Appasaheb Patil: He was the man who arranged first conference of Dalits. Chhatrapati Sahu Maharaj of Kolhapur was the Chief Guest in this conference. It was attended by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, who was a young guy at that time.
Rajmati Birnale: A revolutionary in freedom movement of India
Baa. Bhu. Patil: Founder of Ratnakar Bank, Jain activist and leader, a lawyer, writer, publisher.
Tatya Keshav Chopde: Noted Marathi writer and historian
Appa Bhau. Magdum: Noted Marathi writer, poet, publisher and social reformer
Annasaheb Bhau Magdum: One of the early students of the great Karmveer Bhaurao Patil, who later became Chief Secretary of Rayat Shikshan Sanstha. He was a mathematician and an educationalist.
Balasaheb Patil: A leader of non-Brahmin movement, journalist, writer and social reformer. He was editor of Satyavadi, a Marathi daily published from Kolhaour.
Rajmati Patil: A Philanthropologist
Kallapaa Anna Awade: A leader of co-operative movement in Maharashtra, ex M.P.
A.B. Jaknur: : A leader of co-operative movement in Karnataka, Politician, Ex-Minister
Indumati Awade: Founder of Asia’s first women’s co-operative yarn mill.
Raju Shetti: Leader of farmers, President of Swabhimani Shetkari Sanghatana, elected as a Member of Parliament in 2009 elections.
Sharad Patil: Educationalist, writer and politician
Prakash Awade: Politician, Ex Minister of Maharashtra.
Suresh Patil: Ex Mayor of Sangli city, Businessman, Educationalist
Dhulappa Anna Navale: Freedom fighter, close colleague of Vasant Dada Patil, (Late Chief Minister of Maharashtra), MLA of Maharshtra.
Bhalchandra Vagyani: Justice, writer, President of 18th Marathi Jain Sahitya Sammelan.
Bhuvanedra Kumar: Jain Scholar and Activist from Canada
Subhash Chandra Akkole: Jain Scholar, Marathi writer, the first one who discovered medieval history of Marathi Jain literature.
Dr. Ravsaheb Patil: Noted Marathi writer, speaker and thinker
Mahavir Sanglikar: Noted writer, scholar and thinker
Neelam Mangave: Noted Marathi writer
Harshit Abhiraj: Music Composer, Singer and Film Producer
Bapusaheb Patil: Industrialist
J.F. Patil: Noted Economist
Parshwanath Digrajkar: Musician and Singer, Guru of the famous singer Suresh Wadkar
Major Prakash Patil: Educationalist, Social Worker
Ajit Narade: leader of cultivators
Bapusaheb Magdum: A Communist leader
This research is mainly based on the fieldwork and observations by the writer. The writer himself belongs to this community. The main sources of this research include:
1. Helavi records
2. Discussions with Patils of various Jain villages
3. Discussions with Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha activists
4. Discussions with elderly persons
5. Discussions with elderly and knowledgeable priests of Jain temples in Jain villages
Reference Books:
1.Jain Community: A Social Survey by Dr. Vilas Sangave
2. People of India
3. Jain Aani Hindu by Tatya Keshav Chopade
4. Census of India reports 1881 to 2001
5. All India Digambar Jain Directory 1914
6. Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabhecha Itihas
7. Jain Shilalekh Sangrah Bhag I
8. History of Gounder community
9. The Origin of Gowdas
10. Shilahar Rajwanshacha Itihas: Dr. V.V. Mirashi
11. Kolhapur District Gazetteer 1884
12. District Gazetteer of Belgaum
13. District Gazetteer of Mysore
14. Canadian Studies in Jainism by Dr. Bhuvanendra Kumar
15. The Origin of Gowdas
16. Jain Vadhu Var Parichay Melava Directory 1999, 2001 published by Jain Sahyog, Pune
17. Aanasaheb Latthe biography
See Also:
Jainism in Maharastra
Kolhapur Jains
Jainism in Kolhapur
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