By. Dr. A. N. Upadhye
The quest for the Higher on an intellectual or metaphysical plane has been all along, in India, the privilege or province of some outstanding individual or individuals, while the mass of the population, generally steeped in ignorance and poverty, was devoted to crude deification and ancestor-worship. The power of a religious leader lay in his ability to win over to his creed the people around him. In India there have been two types of religious leaders: the Priest, and the Ascetic.
The priest was a champion of retualism. He “vigorously claimed that the welfare and indeed the very existence of the world, including even the gods, depended upon the maintenance of their systems of sacrifice, which grew to immense size and complexity.” The cults popularized by him were polytheistic; the deities were very often forces of nature; and man was put at their utter mercy, the priest along being capable of saving him by seeking the favour of the deities through sacrificial rites. This is the line of thought of the Vedic religion and its custodians. It came into India from outside, from the North-West. And, thanks to the mesmeric power exerted by elaborate ritual, it gradually spread towards the East the and the South, catching handfuls of followers here and there.
As distinguished from this, in the East, along the fertile banks of the Ganges and the Jumna, there flourished in India a succession of ascetic teachers, who, hailing from rich families, had enough leisure for high thinking and religious meditation. For them, the spirit in man, and also in all animate beings, was the focus of religious meditation as well as an object of investigation in relation to all that is inanimate in the universe. This brought them fact to face with the problem of life here and elsewhere, since both spirit and matter were real for them-real, and therefore essentially eternal, though passing through the flux of change. Life here and hereafter was the result of the beginningless connection between spirit and matter, which was the source of all the misery in this world; and the aim of religion was to separate matter from spirit, so that the latter might achieve a state of liberation in which it would exist in a plenitude of purity, bliss and knowledge. Man is his own master; his thoughts, words and acts have made him, and continue to make him, what he is; it is in his hands to make or mar his present or future; the great teachers of the past are his ideals to inspire him along the path of religion; and he has to struggle, with hope, on the well-trodden path of spiritual progress, following a code of moral and ascetic discipline, till he reaches the goal of spiritual Emancipation or perfection.
Thus it will be seen that here, in the Eastern stream of religious thought, there is no place either for a Deity who shapes the universe and meddles in its matters, of for a priest invested with mysterious powers to propitiate Him. This line of thought is well represented by Jaina Tirthankaras like Neminatha, Parsva and Mahavira, by Ajivika Teachers like Goshala, by Samkhya philosophers like Kapila and promulgators of Buddhism like Buddha.
With the political freedom of our land, there is great enthusiasm all over the country, particularly patent and eloquent among the educated classes who have started revaluing the ancient Indian heritage in a new perspective. It is in the fitness of things that great personalities like Mahavira and Buddha are remembered with reverence in this context. I have often wondered how these great teachers, whose preachings have such an abiding human appeal, could have been somewhat neglected for some time in the very land which they enriched and elevated in its moral stature. It is, however, a happy augury that their greatness is being appreciated to-day all the more. As usual, it is an irony with us, that Western scholarship has to make us aware of the greatness of our men and matters. Very valuable work in the fields of Jaina and Buddhist literatures as done by Western savants; and to-day, we are in a position to appreciate the greatness of Mahavira and Buddha, better than we could do in earlier days.
As a sign of the new spirit, the 2500th Parinirvana Day of Buddha is being celebrated this year; besides, the Jayanti days of Mahavira and Buddha are celebrated all over the country every year now. Today happens to be the Mahavira Jayanti day. And it is but natural that I should address you in detail on the personality of and principles preached by Mahavira.
Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha, and he stands as the 24th Tirthankara whose preachings fully breathe the spirit of what I have called Eastern stream of thought in India. All that Mahavira and his predecessors have preached goes under the name of Jainism to-day, but that should not come in the way of our appreciating and putting into practice the great principles preached by Mahavira which stand to-day embedded and elaborately interpreted in Jaina literature in different languages.
Those of you who have visited Bihar can testify to the fertility of that part of India; but more than that, in the history of Indian thought and culture Bihar has played an important role. The great champions of Atma philosophy like Buddha, Janaka and Mahavira hail from this part. It is Mithila in Bihar that has made substantial contributions to Mimamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika systems. Some 2500 years ago, Vaishali (modern Basarh, some 30 miles to the north of Patna) was a prosperous capital. A suburb of it was called Kundapura or Kshatriyakunda; and here in the palace of King Sidhartha of his queen Trishala or Priyakarini Mahavira was born to emphasize his various outstanding traits, he was also known as Jnata-putra, Vaisaliya, Vardhamana, Sanmati, etc. His mother belonged to the family of Chetaka, the mighty Licchavi ruler of Videha at whose call Licchavis and Mallas co-operated both for defense and offence. Tradition is not unanimous about his marriage: according to the one, he was a celibate throughout; while according to another, he married Yashoda and had a daughter called Priyadarshana. As a prince, having excellent connections with ruling dynasties of his times, it was expected of him to rule with authority and enjoy the pleasures of a prosperous carrier after his father. But that was no to be. Just at the age of 30, Mahavira decided like a hero to relinquish the comforts of a princely life and undertook the life of an ascetic with a view to attaining spiritual happiness, and thus place before the world the correct values of life and an example of his having solved its problems in a successful manner. Attachment and possessive instincts have been the greatest obstacles in the attainment of spiritual peace and purification; and he gave them up in an ideal manner. Physical comforts are not an end in themselves; and mahavira became Nirgrantha, and went about practicing severe penances, even without any clothes on his body. We have graphic description of his hardships given in detail in the Acharanga, etc.: people abused him, boys pelted him with stones, and thus he was subjected to many calamities in the Eastern part of Bengal. After twelve years of rigorous penances, Mahavira had a triumph over physical weaknesses and limitations; and he attained pure and perfect knowledge which transcended the limits of space and time: he became a Kevalin, a Sarvajna. Shrenika Bimbisara was his contemporary and was ruling at Rajagrha: Mahavira delivered his first sermon on the hill Vipulakala in the vicinity of Rajagrha. For full thirty years he visited different parts of the country; and it was his Vihara, or religious tour, as well as that of Buddha, that gave Magadhan territory the name of Bihar. Mahavira’s parents belonged to the school of Parshva; during his Vihara, Mahavira explained toe his society various problems of life and their solutions. He laid maximum stress on the sanctity and dignity of the spirit, and his preachings were meant for one and all who conformed to the religious discipline outlined by him. The organization of his followers, including princes as well as poor peasants, conformed to the fourfold pattern consisting of Monks, Nuns, Householders and House-ladies: this nomenclature continues in Jainism even to this day. The influence of the great principles preached by Mahavira is seen in India even outside Jainism. He was a Tirthankara, who prepared a ford for the suffering humanity to achieve peace here and bliss elsewhere. In view of the all-embracing character of Mahavir’s principles, Samantabhadra, as early as 2nd century A.D., called the Tirtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya, which term is so commonly used now-a days after Gandhiji. At the age of 72, Mahavira attained Nirvana at Pava in 527 B. C.; and this day is celebrated with lights all over India as the Divali Day.
A large amount of literature, both ancient and modern, is available on the life and activities of Mahavira; and many myths, miracles and legends have grown about his personality, as usual with all religius dignitaries. Scientific and historical scrutiny unaffected by sectarian prejudice and religious bias is made difficult by the very nature of the sources from which the information has to be gleaned. What I have attempted above is a bare outline of Mahavira’s biography. If it is difficult, of beyond the means of historical study, to know all about Mahavira, in my humble opinion, it is more important to understand and put into practice the principles preached by Mahavira that to discuss this detail or that about his personal life.
In this connection, you will excuse me, if I make a little digression introducing to you some aspects of Vaisali (spelt as Vaishali), the birthplace of Mahavira. The town was at its height of prosperity, and by its association with Mahavira It became far-famed in the religious world of India. Teachers from Vaishali preached great principles for the uplift of humanity and lived an austere life of fasts and penances; and Mahavira stood out as the most prominent of hi contemporaries. According to the Mahavastu, Buddha sought his first teachers in Alara and Uddaka at Vaishali and “even started his life as a Jain under their teachings.” After discovering his Middle Path, the became more and more honored at Vaishali, receiving even royal reception; the city built for him a Kutagara-shala, a pinnacled rest house, in its suburban park known as the Mahavana. It is at Vaishali that the Second Buddhist Council was held; and it came to be looked upon as a holy spot where differences in the Sangha could be ironed out. His celebrated disciple Amrapali was a resident of Vaishali at which place she bequeathed her park to Buddha and the community. Vaishali has its political significance too. It had a Republican Government, and King Chetaka, the Licchavi Republican President, ‘organized a Federation of Republics comprising Mallakis, and 18 Gana-rajas of Kashikoshala, besides the 9 Licchavi Republics.’ The working of the Vajjian Confederation, so vividly described in the Dighanikaya, is an unique example of its kind and essentially contributed to the efficiency and solidarity of the Republic. Further Vaishali was a commercial capital where seals were issued by three classes of guilds, namely, Bankers, Traders and Artisans. When Fa-Hien visited India (A.D. 399-414), it was an important religious, political and commercial centre; but its fall began in the next three centuries, and but its fall began in the next three centuries, and what Hiuen-Tsang (A.D. 635) saw there was more or less in ruins. And to-day it is a neglected village.
The Indian Republic of to-day has inherited a great deal from the spirit of Vaishali, and the Vajjian concord is the pedestal of our democracy, apart from the fact that Ahimsa with its corollaries, viz., Panchasilas, is the bed-rock on which our policies are built. By adopting Hindi as the State Language, our Central Government is only carrying on the policy of Magadhan Governments which gave more importance to the language of the massed than to the of the classes. The inscriptions of Ashoka are all in Prakrit. Our Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who said the other day that he can find time to meet the humblest in the country even in preference to his big officials easily reminds me of Ashoka, the Priyadarshin, who had a similar dictum. Thus it is but natural that Vaishali can no more be neglected. Thanks to the vigilant eye of the Central Government, patronage of the Bihar Government, princely gifts enlightened industrialists like Shri Shantiprasadji and the active efforts of the Vaishali Sangha with its able workers like Shri J. C. Mathur, Vaishali is rising up again. The Bihar Government have started a Post-graduate Institute there for Prakrit and Jaina studies, and Dr. Hiralal Jain is the first worthy Director of this growing Institute. We have no doubt that the place will be a great centre of learning.
Through the ravages of time and tide, and due to political vicissitudes Vaishali fell into ruins; and we had nearly forgotten its identity. But you will be pleased to hear that Vaishali has not forgotten its worthy sons. Among the Jaina and Buddhist relics, the most important remnant is a plot of fertile land, owned by a local significant family of Simha or Natha Kshatriyas, which is never cultivated, as far as the family memory goes, because for generations it is believed in the family that on that spot Mahavira was born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is born and hence it is too sacred to be cultivated. It is a remarkable event in the religious history of India that memory of mahavira is so concretely kept at his birthplace by his kinsmen though 2500 years have quietly elapsed.
The period in which Mahavira lived was undoubtedly an age of acute intellectual upheaval in the cultural history of India; and among his contemporaries there were such religious teachers as Kesha Kambalin, Makkhali Gosala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Purana Kassapana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Tathagata Buddha. Mahavira inherited a good deal from earlier Tirthankaras. He left behind not only a systematic religion and philosophy but also a well-knit social order of ascetics and lay followers who earnestly followed and practiced what he and his immediate disciples preached.
Buddha and Mahavira lived in the same age and moved about in the same area with the same dynasties and rulers in view. They stressed the dignity of man as man, and preached to the masses in their own language high moral ideals which advanced the individual on the spiritual plane and further contributed to social solidarity. To posterity, they are the best representatives of the Eastern or Magadhan religion, or what is generally called the Shramanic culture; the basic literature embodying their utterances, has luckily survived to us. A comparative study of the early Jain and Buddhist works presents a remarkable similarity and breathes verily the same religious and moral spirit which as not only stood the test of time for the last two thousand years and the solution of many a human problem. Truth and non-violence as preached and practiced by the background of the moral code preached by Mahavira and Buddha. The references to the Nirgrantha tenets in the Pali canon are of great value for assessing the relation of Jainism and Buddhism.
Apparently there was so much in common between Buddha and Mahavira, that early European scholars mistook them for one individual. But to-day, with progress of studies, they stand before us as two distinct personalities who have left an abiding influence on the history of Indian thought. Buddha, it has to be noted, experimented with many teachers prior to his enlightenment, and discovered the Middle Path, after rejecting much of religious thought current round about him. That was not the case with Mahavira. The religion preached by Vrishabha, Neminatha and his immediate predecessor Parshva (who flourished just a couple of centuries before Mahavira) was already inherited by him and he presented it for contemporary society. Buddha is less compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, compromising with the creeds of his contemporaries, because he started with the conviction that he had personally discovered something new for humanity. But Mahavira was more accommodating nd compromising and quite willing to understand the point of view of others, primarily because he was preaching an earlier religion, may be for a slightly different order of monks and laymen. “It is evident,” as Jacobi has remarked, “that both Mahavira and Buddha have made use of the interest and support of their families to propagate their Order. Their prevalence over other rivals was certainly due in some degree to their connection with the chef families of the country.” Buddha had a longer lease of life: he lived for full eighty years; while Mahavira lived only 72 years. The middle path of Buddha struck a note of novelty and inspired so much enthusiasm among his new followers that its influence spread far and wide. Mahavira, however, had to preach both to old and new followers, and obviously he must have been guided by a spirit of compromise: the question of new recruits was not with him as urgent as it was with Buddha. There is evidence, further confirmed by close similarity between Jaina and Buddhist monastic rules, that Buddha did try the Nirgrantha way of living for a while, obviously the one preached long before by Parshvanatha. As observed by Jacobi “niganthas (Nirgranthas), now better known under the name of Jainas or Arhatas, already existed as an important sect at the time when the Buddhist church was being founded.” The Pali canon refers to Mahavira as Niggantha Nataputta. Both Mahavira and Buddha thus started their careers with the same capital of Shramanic ideology, but differed later on in details, and so also their followers with changing times and places. The subsequent history of Jainism and Buddhism, the former confining itself primarily to India but still surviving as a living institution and the latter spreading with remarkable zeal practically all over the Eastern hemisphere but losing its bearings in the very land of its birth, has its seeds to be sought in their earlier beginnings outlined above. It is absolutely necessary that the doctrines of Buddha and Mahavira be studied in more detail than is done ordinarily by the educated man.
The history of the Jaina Church has many a bright spot here and there. After Mahavira the Church was led by a series of eminent monks and received patronage from kings like Shrenika, Bimbisara, Chandragupta Maurya, etc. Many religious monks, ruling dynasties, wealth traders and pious families have contributed to the stability and continuity of Jaina Church with the result that India can feel proud of the Jaina contributions both to its civilization and culture in matters of art, architecture, literature and moral code.
The preachings of Mahavira are embedded in the canonical texts, and they are interpreted by series of commentaries known as Niryuktis, Curnis, Bhashyas and Tikas. Individual topic are discussed in manuals and further illustrated by extensive narrative literatures. The doctrines are logically defended by a number of authors in comparison with and contrast to other Indian systems. Jaina contributions to Indian literature embrace various subjects; and they are spread in different languages like Prakrits (including Apabhramsha), Sanskrit, Tamil, kannada, Old Hindi, Old Gujarati, etc. Jaina authors have considered language only as means to an end; they never invested any one language with religious sanctity. Thanks to their broad outlook, they could make salient contributions to Sanskrit and Prakrit; and how they have enriched Tamil and Kannada, at least the learned audience here needs no further elaboration from me. Buhler wrote many years back about Jaina literature in this manner: “In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles-letters the achievements of Jainas have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their works are of importance for European Science even to-day. In the South where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil and Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jaina monks. Thought his activity has led them far away from their own particular aims, yet it has secured for them an important place in the history of Indian literature and civilization.” This prophetic observation of that great German scholar is not only fully borne out, but latter finds and researches have also shown that if Buhler had lived to-day, he would have been more eloquent on the Jaina contributions to Indian Literature. With such meticulous care and perseverance the Jainas have preserved MS. collections in places like Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Pattan and Moodbidri that these are a part of our national wealth. They built these collections with such an academic and catholic outlook, that there was hardly any place for religious bias. It must be said to the credit of the builders of the great collections at Jaisalmer and Pattan that it is here that we could trace certain original Buddhist works which otherwise were known to us only from Tibetian translations.
A dispassionate and critical study of Jaina literature enables one to get a fair idea of the Jaina outlook or view of life. By the Jaina view of life we mean the view of life sanctioned by Jainism as apparent from an objective and judicious interpretation of the fundamentals of Jaina metaphysics and ethics, and not the outlook on the life which the followers of Jainism generally have to-day.
Metaphysically speaking, all souls, according to their stage of spiritual evolution or progress (in terms of Gunasthanas) have a legitimate place on the path of religion; everyone’s position is determined by his Karmic limitations, and his progress depends on his potentialities. The Jaina God is neither a creator of the universe nor a dispenser of favors and frowns. He is a spiritual ideal, but also a being who has reached absolute perfection. If He is praised and worshipped, it is with a view to remembering His virtues, so that we may cultivate them in ourselves and attain the same status. Every soul must reap the fruits, pleasant or painful, of all it has done; for it is, in the last analysis, the architect of its own fortune. The question of exchanging one’s sins or merits with any other soul is irrelevant. Now, clearly such an attitude does not leave one at the mercy of an outside agency, divine or semi-divine and enables one to work with confidence and hope. The individual, however criminal under the stress of internal and external forces, need not despair because he is latently divine, and a day will come when he will realize himself.
Jainism lays down certain ethical standards which are duly graded, for the uplift of the individual as a social being. As long as he lives as a member of society, betterment, he owes to himself for his spiritual betterment, he owes a good deal to the society in which he is living; but if he relinquishes the world and leads the life of an ascetic, hi ties with society and his responsibilities towards it are considerably reduced. In Jainism, the duties of a householder are in miniature those of a monk; and a householder, while duly carrying out his household duties, rises steadily to the status of a monk.
Ahimsa is the most important principle that permeates the Jaina outlook on life. In simple language it means the greatest possible kindness towards the animate world. Jainism has prepared a graded series of living beings; and a religious person has to strive his best to minimise harm to them. Every living beings has a sanctity and a dignity of its own; and one has to respect it as one expects one’s own dignity to be respected. A man of kindly temperament sheds around him an atmosphere of kindness. Jainism has firmly held that life is sacred irrespective of species, caste, color, creed or nationality. A resident of Hiroshima or Nagasaki is as sacred as one in New York or London: what his color is, what he eats, and how he dresses-these are external adjuncts. Thus the practice of Ahimsa is both an individual and a collective virtue; and this kindly attitude, which requires that our hearts be free from baser impulses like anger, pride, hypocrisy, greed, envy and contempt, has a positive force and universal appeal.
The second virtue which Jaina ethics lays stress on is good neighborliness; one should speak the truth and respect the right of property. It is thus that one becomes trustworthy in society, and at the same time creates an atmosphere of security for others. One’s thoughts, words and acts must be consistent with each other; and they must, further, create an atmosphere of confidence and a reciprocal sense of security must start with the immediate neighbour and then be gradually diffused in society at large, not only in theory but also in practice. These virtues can go to constitute coherent social and political groups of worthy citizens who yearn for peaceful co-existence with the well-being of the entire humanity in view.
The third virtue is a steady and progressive restraint on acquisitiveness which manifests itself either in the form of yearning for sensual or sex pleasure, or for acquisition of property. This virtue is to be practiced in different degrees at different stages of one’s spiritual or religious progress. An ideally religious man is entirely free from acquisitiveness in thought, word and deed; his last vestige of property is his body alone, and his wants are the minimum required to sustain it; and this too he voluntarily relinquishes in the end when he finds that it gives him no more aid in the practice of religion. Pursuit of pleasure as an endless game; individual inclinations and passions must be duly trained and curbed; thus indeed does one get mental poise and spiritual balance. A voluntary limitation of property is community virtue which results in social justice and fair distribution of utility commodities. The strong and the rich should not weed out the weak and the poor but put such voluntary restriction on their instincts and possessions that the underprivileged too have a fair chance in life. Any attempt to enforce these qualities by an external and legal authority, either on the individual or society, will lead to hypocrisy or secret criminal tendencies. It is for sensible individuals to practice these virtues, and thus set an example from which an enlightened society will gradually be developed.
There are many elements which go to constitute the intellectual make-up of an individual; his inheritance, environment, upbringing, studies and experiences. It is this intellectual make-up that shapes his convictions and opinions: if he lacks in intellectual honesty and integrity of expression, these latter may get perverted. All these, moreover, get a different coloring according to the motives and ambitions of individuals, singly or collectively. This is why one finds that unanimity of opinion or agreement in views is very scarce. For most of us, even presuming that all of us are sincere, it is easier, nay almost natural, to differ rather than agree on any given topic. To meet this situation, Jainism has presented to the world two significant instruments of understanding and expression: one is the Nayavada and the other, Syadvada. The Nayavada enables one to analyse the various points of view and appraises their relative validity: it is a remarkable method for the analytical comprehension of a complex question. Naya is a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular approach. It reveals a partial or a particular view of the totality, and it should not be mistaken for the whole. A synthesis of these different viewpoints is an imperative necessity; therein every view point must retain its relative position; and this need is fulfilled by Syadvada. One can say ‘yes,’ of say ‘no’ or even express one’s inability to state anything: these three basic statements, when combined, can give rise to seven predications which are qualified by the term ‘syat’ or ‘may be,’ indicating the limits of understanding and expression. Syadvada, in course of the process of assertion or denial curbs down and harmonizes the absolute viewpoints of individual Nayas. “Syadvada,” says Professor A. B. Dhruva, “is not a doctrine of speculative interest, one intended to solve a mere ontological problem, but has a bearing upon man’s physiological and spiritual life.” It has supplied the philosopher with catholicity of thought, convincing him that Truth is not anybody’s monopoly with tariff walls of denominational religion, while furnishing the religious aspirant with the virtue of intellectual toleration which is a part of that Ahimsa which is one of the fundamental tenets of Jainism.
Human beings have limited knowledge and inadequate expression. That is why different doctrines are inadequate; at the most they are one-sided views of the Truth which cannot be duly enclosed in words and concepts. Jainism has always held that it is wrong, if not dangerous to presume that one’s own creed alone represents the truth. Toleration is, therefore, the characteristic of Jaina ideology. Even the Jaina monarchs and generals have a slean and commendable record to their credit I this regard. The political history of India knows no cases of persecution by Jaina kings, even when Jaina monks and laymen have suffered at the hands of other religionists of fanatical temper. Dr. Saletore has rightly observed: “The principle of Ahimsa was partly responsible for the greatest contribution of the Jainas to Hindu culture-that relating to toleration. Whatever may be said concerning the rigidity with which they maintained their religious tenets and the tenacity and skill with which they met and defeated their opponents in religious disputations, yet it cannot be denied that the Jainas fostered the principle of toleration more sincerely and at the same time more successfully than any other community in India.”
Time was when man was at the mercy of nature; to-day, however, he has dived deep into the mysteries of nature and become her master instead of her slave. There is such rapid progress in the various branches of science; and the scientist’s achievements in nuclear physics and atomic weapons are so astounding tat, if he is intends, he can destroy the entire human race and change the face of the earth. Thus, to-day, the human race is standing on the verge of catastrophe; its mind is getting befogged and bewildered; and it is rushing towards the very precipice which it wants to avoid. Obviously, we are required to revalue our values.
The progress of science is the corollary of an attempt to achieve greater happiness for man. But, unfortunately, man as man is not properly understood; of language. By the term “man” many have only “the white man” in view; and such an attitude is subversive of all ethical standards. If some parts of the world are apparently more civilized, very often it is at the cost of the other parts. Co-operative and collective amelioration of the entire mankind has to take the place of colonial exploitation. The sanctity and dignity of mankind have to be recognized in preference to our separate affluence and supremacy. Scientific skill must be accompanied by a saint’s wisdom. Thus man has to understand man as man. In this technically unified world, there is very little difference between oneself and others; I wish well to myself, that is practicable, only if I wish well to others. The doctrine of Ahimsa, if rightly understood and sincerely practiced, supplies the necessary basis for this humanitarian outlook of a world-citizen.
The organized atrocities of man need not make us despair. The doctrine of Karma tells us that we are the architects of our own fortune. It is for us to look into ourselves, analyse our motives, estimate our objectives, both individually and collectively, without slavishly prostrating ourselves before any power for fear or favour; and thus work on with confidence and hope that man must progress for his existence and betterment. Every individually has the potentiality of the divine, and it is for him to realize this by following the path of religion. Physical science and technical skill have given us power, and it is for us now to choose whether we want to make forward progress for the betterment of man and his environment or just reduce ourselves to a heap of radio-active ashes.
Good neighborliness and restraint on the acquisitive instinct are a contagious virtue: what is true of an individual is also true of a group, social or political. The man who does not know himself and refuses to know another an as man can never live at peace with himself or, obviously, at peace with others. A clear understanding of onself and of others can alone remove mutual suspicion and counterbalance the constant threat of war, thus leading us to a true condition of peaceful co-existence.
To-day, liberty of thought and speech is increasingly getting crippled in a subtle manner. Tendentious propaganda not only conceals but also perverts the apparent facts, and the world is put on a wrong track. This means that the thinking man has to keep himself vigilant, understand the limitations of his knowledge and thus learn to respect the viewpoint of others, as laid down by Nayavada and Syadvada. Let us ot lose faith in man as man, and let us learn to respect each other as man. We must see that man lives under healthy and progressive conditions as a world-citizen. The basic principles of Jainism (such as Ahimsa, Vratas, Nayavada and Syadvada), if correctly understood and earnestly put into practice, can make one a worthy citizen of the world
Showing posts with label mahavira. Show all posts
Showing posts with label mahavira. Show all posts
Oct 25, 2009
Nov 21, 2008
Jain Religion & Mahavira
Sudarshan Jain
Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world. The term Jaina means the devotee of Jinas (Spiritual Victors). Jinas are called so because they have won victory over passions of attachment, aversion, etc. that defile the soul. As a result, they have attained omniscience and supreme bliss. They are enlightened human teachers. They are also called Tirthankaras (Ford-makers). Here in the context, ford means tirthankara's words and teaching which help living beings to cross the ocean of misery or transmigratory existence. In every half-cycle of Time there flourish twenty-four Tirthankaras. The twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the present half-cycle of Time is Vardhamana, known as Mahavira.
Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. in a royal knightly family in Kshatriyakunda, a wellknown city of the ancient kingdom of Videha (modern Bihar). At the age of thirty, to find out the path to Ultimate Release from all misery he renounced the world, he embarked upon a spiritual career and lived a life of a Jaina ascetic. After twelve years of severe spiritual discipline of self-culture, self-control, austerities and deep meditation, he totally exterminated attachment completely and attained omniscience (kevalajnana). He became a perfected soul and prophet (Tirthankara). During the next thirty years of his career as a prophet he travelled on foot from place to place giving his message of peace and goodwill for the welfare of all living beings, without any discrimination of race, class, caste or sex. Eleven men accepted his spiritual leadership and became his chief disciples (ganadhara). He founded the order of nuns with Candanabala as its first member. The number of male and female ascetics increased and reached upto about 50,000. The lay followers were about half a million.
Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshva, the penultimate Tirthankara, who lived about 250 years earlier in Varanasi. The historicity of Parshva is proved by the modern historians and scholars. So Mahavira was not the founder of Jaina religion. He was the rejuvenator, propagator and exponent of Jaina religion which had been taught by Parshva and other omniscient teachers of his ever present and imperishable Jaina tradition.
Initially the followers of Jainism lived throughout the Ganges Valley. Around the time of Ashoka (250 B.C.) most Jainas migrated to the city of Mathura on the Yamuna river. Later, many travelled westword to Rajasthan and Gujarat and south word to Maharashtra and Karnataka, where Jainism rapidly grew in popularity.
The Jaina canon contains some sixty texts and is divided into three main group, the Purva (old texts : 14 books), the Angas (limbs : 12 books) and the Angabahya(subsidiary canon). Not all are extant. In addition to the threefold canon itself, there are extensive commentaries written in Prakrit and Sanskrit by the monk scholars. The Tattvartha Surta, written in the second century A.D., belongs to this group. Its author Umasvati is held in high esteem by both Svetambar and Digambar tradition. It for the first time presents in Sanskrit the entire canonical material on various subjects in aphoristic style and in classified form succinctly and systematically. In Jainism, the essence of religion lies in an intuitive apprehension of the purity of consciousness. According to Jainism, the love of truth is inherent in each self, but it requires spiritual exercise for its manifestation. Once this love of truth is manifested, it will lead the self to liberation sooner or later.
The conduct of a person, in the Jain view cannot be isolated from his way of life. For the true Jaina, Truth and Values are inseperable. This is where right knowledge comes in. As Acharya Samantabhadra in his Yuktyanushasanam (Verse 15) says :
"Without knowing the real nature of things, all moral distinctions between bondage and liberation, merit and demerit, pleasure and pain will be absurd."
The values of Jain religion are based on five vows viz.- non-violence, devotion to truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession. The entire life style of the Jain Shravak and the Jain Sadhu emanates from these vows and the foremost is non-violence.
Ahimsa, non-violence, has been the sheet-anchor of Jainism. Ahimsa is one of the basic virtues. No where else in the other religious traditions has this basic virtue been so scientifically, scrupulously and thoroughly integrated with the main doctrine. Jainism is the only tradition which has consistently allowed this tenet soak into the very essentials of its teachings and practices. This singular uncompromising emphasis on Ahimsa is the special and exclusive feature of Jainism. In Jainism, Ahimsa is not mere human sympathy; it is empathy, the urge to identify oneself completely with other persons, other living beings, with the whole universe.
Bhagwan Mahavir said, "If you kill someone, it is yourself you kill. If you overpower someone, it is yourself you overpower. If you torment some one, it is yourself you torment. If you harm someone, it is yourself you harm." A wise man knows this and so he does not kill, nor does he overpower or torment anyone.
The heart of Jainism is non-violence. Positively stated, Jainism is a religion of compassion, universal love and friendliness. It aims at the welfare of all living beings, and not of man alone. It maintains that living beings are infinite, all so called empty spaces in the universe are filled with minute living beings. According to it, there are countless single-sense organisms that take the subtlest possible units of material elements -earth, water, fire and air - as their bodies. Fresh earth is alive but when it is baked it becomes dead. Fresh water from a well, etc. is alive but when it is boiled or influenced by mixing some other substance it becomes dead. Vegetables, trees, plants, fruits, etc. do have life but when they are dried, cut or cooked they die. To avoid injury to them as far as possible, man is advised to use them discreetly. He should resist from polluting water, air, etc. and thereby perpetrating violence to them. Worms, insects, animals, etc. help in keeping ecological balance thus they help man. And domestic animals have for ages been a constant and faithful aid to man in civilizing himself. From the ultimate standpoint of their original pure pristine state, all living beings are uniform in their nature. Jainism teaches to look upon them as upon one's own self.
Inflicting injury to them is inflicting injury to one's ownself. The Jain dictum parasparopagraho jivanam, that is 'living beings render service to one another' offers an endearing alternative to the modern Darwinian formula of 'survival of the fittest.' The life of a living being is a life of mutual cooperation andassistance. Industry, labour, service and sacrifice of innumerable living beings are there behind the sustenance and growth of an individual. Thus every individual is indebted to the universal society of all beings. Even virtues and meritorious qualities can never be cultivated and fostered in isolation.
This concept of Ahimsa, non-violence, has evolved from logical thinking and from experience. It has an almost empirical basis. It has emerged from the doctrine of the equality of all souls. Everyone wants to live, nobody likes to die. Violence enters first in thought, it then manifests itself in speech and then in deeds. That is why they say that war is born in the minds of men. The quest for ahimsa is centred in Anekantavada, the philosophy which accomodates a multiplicity of points-of-view and of perspectives.
In Jain philosophy Ahimsa is said to be the supreme religion and himsa is considered to be source of all evil and of all miseries. Ahimsa is not limited to not harming the human beings, it extends to all living beings. This philosophy believes in the unity of life and regards all living beings as equal. He who can be cruel to animals can be cruel to human beings too. Further, cruelty is not only an aspect of external behaviour, but it is also an inner evil tendency. He who is cruel at heart will behave cruelly towards animals as well as human beings. He who is compassionate at heart, will behave compassionately towards all. Moreover, the jain religion believes in the cycle of birth and rebirth. The soul is in one Yoni (existence) today; it may be in another Yoni tomorrow. It may be a fly today and a human tomorrow. This being so, man has no right to harm other living creations. One should behave sympathetically towards all, friends as well as foes. In fact there should be no enemy. Such is the importance of Ahimsa in Jain philosophy.
(Nothing is higher than the Meru mountain; nothing is vaster than the sky. Similarly, there is no better religion than Ahimsa).
It is one of the tenets of Jainism that all living beings desire life and not death. No one has the right to take away the life of any other being; to kill a living being is the greatest of sins. Life is dear to everyone, and we must have respect for life. Not only "Love and Let Live" but "Live and Help Others Live" should be our principle. Just as the head of a family looks after the welfare of the members of the family, a human being, who enjoys the highest place in the evolution of life, should look after the welfare of other lower orders of creations.
The universe is full of living creations, big and small, and, therefore, it is impossible to exist without killing or injuring some of the smallest of the living beings. Even in the process of breathing, or drinking or eating, we almost unconsciously kill many sentient beings ? Therefore, according to Jainism the minimum of killing should be our ideal. Moreover, it is more serious where killing is done intentionally or through indifference. Therefore, great care should be taken in all our daily activities to see that the minimum of violence is committed by our deeds, speech and mind.
In the universe, there are different forms, different orders, of life, such as human beings, animals, insects, trees and plants, bacteria and even still smaller lives which perhaps be seen only through the most powerful of microscopes. Jainism has classified all the living beings according to their sense organs.
Jainism firmly believes that life is sacred, irrespective of caste, colour, creed or nationality and therefore not only physical or mental injury to life should be avoided, but all possible kindness should be shown towards all the living things. This should be the true spirit of Ahimsa. Jainism believes that more weapons are in no way an effectiveanswer to weapons. Lord Mahavir has emphatically declared in "Acharanga Sutra" that one weapon may be stronger or superior to another, but the path of Ahimsa or peace remains unsurpassed. Fire cannot be put out by fire. It is our duty to stop adding fuel to the fire. Jaina scriptures say that a piece of blood-stained cloth cannot be washed with blood, we need water to do it. To achieve peace, world peace, we have to stop the race of armaments and we have to have an unshakeable faith in Samyag Darshana in the effective validity of Ahimsa. For who can claim final and absolute victory in the race for armaments? Like Arjuna the nations believing in violent means shall have to declare, "Nor do we know which for us is better whether we conquer them or they conquer us." Ahimsa teaches us that recourse to armed force is an infallible sign of the brute in man, that war neither profits the victor nor the vanquished.
The second great vow is Truth. To speak the truth, one require moral courage. Only those who have conquered greed, fear, anger, jealousy, ego, vulgarity, frivolity etc. can speak the truth when required.
Jainism always advocates the generous view, the view that there can be a grain of truth in what the other persons say, Anekantadrishti, for truth is relative. As you have full faith in what is truth from your point of view, so too one should make room for the view-point of others. Thus, Anekantavada (Theory of many-sidedness) enables one to tolerate and co-ordinate a wide range of points-of-view in a spirit of co-operation even if at times, these may be contradictory. This is the true method involving ceaseless endeavour to search out truth. To regard everything from a relative point of view and to see an element of truth in everything, this is Anekantavada. Not 'mine is the truth' but 'truth is mine' should be one's motto.
Anekantavada is the heart of Jainism. It constitutes its most significant contribution to religious thought, and especially in the field of ethics. It teaches that the kingdom of truth can be reached through plurality of ways. It also teaches not to impose one's own thoughts or views on others, and to try to reconcile the thoughts or view-points of others with one's own. This principle, therefore, if earnestly put into practice shows us how to overcome our personal view of things, which is often short-sighted, selfish and partial. It shows us how to remove discord and disharmony and establish concord and harmony in life, by being catholic and tolerant in our outlook and attiude towards others.
The principle of Anekantavada should be applied to every field of life. It shows how to respect candid opinions of all free thinkers of the world; the roots of modern democracy could be traced in this Jaina principle. It establishes unity in diversity. It promises reconciliation of divergent or conflicting statements, thoughts, ideologies, systems, religions etc. The principle of Anekantavada therefore can be a great instrument for promoting peaceful co-existence and unity in the world.
Another great vow is the vow of non-stealing. Man should abandon all kinds of stealing. We should not take anything that is not given to us. Nor should we help anyone take what is not given to him.
The fourth great vow is that of celibacy. Bhagwan Mahavir added this great vow to the four of Parshvanath's and estabished its distinct importance. He said that all physical and mental miseries of the world are caused by the thirst for sensual pleasures. For all sensual pleasures are ultimately harmful.
The fifth great vow is of non-possession. Possession is the source of evil. Possession is not only the acquisition or accumulation of things but also temptation for and attachment to things. No wonder C. Rajgopalachari wrote, "Restraint is the mark of Indian Culture." This sense of possession is the source of all the five evils viz. violence, untruthfulness, stealing, sensual pleasure and attachment. Today we see that the chief cause of the boundless miseries of the present world is man's uncontrolled tendency to possess. Man believes that possession brings happiness. But in fact possession is thecause of miseries and bondage. Possession enslaves man to external things. As the bee sucks honey from the flower without destroying it, so the welfare seeking man should do the least possible harm to another in his worldy life. Thus, expounding the five great vows Bhagwan Mahavir says, "As the wind blows across flaming fire, so ideal people observing these vows will pass through the Samsara (transmigratory existence) and attain eternal joy." Lord Mahavir has said that wants and desires have no end and only the sky is the limit for them.
Attachment to wordly objects results in the everlasting cycle of birth and death. Therefore, one who aspires spiritual liberation should withdraw from all attachment to pleasures which arises because of the indiscriminate uses of the five senses.
Jainism believes in the potential divinity of man. Given freedom for development, every individual can attain supreme spiritual progress. Hence, any interference with an individual's development would lead to spiritual degeneration. Violence is nothing but such an interference with individual freedom, hence, it must be shunned in thought, word and deed.
Bhagwan Mahavir discarded the false importance of gender and caste and established the importance of good conduct.
(One is a Brahmin, a Kshatriya, a Vaishya or a Shoodra according to one's Karma). Thus, he led shoodras out of the darkness of slavery and lifted them up from beastliness to godliness. He said that a man or woman irrespective of his or her caste could practise religion. In fact, he said that a Monk should not have any self conscionsness regarding his apperance, knowledge, penance or celibacy. This was Bhagwan Mahavir's profoundly revolutionary social vision. He changed the whole situation. This true insight given from the depth of his soul made a permanent impact on the society. Bhagwan Mahavir expressed his thoughts fearlessly and firmly and liberated people from the bondage of a certain class of people, from the practices of violence and mental slavery. He led the society out of the bondage of the caste system. It is really regrettable that even in some civilised countries, prejudice due to colour, race, or nationality still persists and keeps the people divided anongst themselves. Experience teaches us that colour or racial arrogance cannot continue to exist for long. Humanity has to be reminded again and again that the entire human race is but one family, irrespective of differences of colour, race or nationality. "All humanity is one ", is one of the fundamental teachings that Jainism offers.
There are three distinct contributions of Jainism to Indian Culture viz. Equality (Sama), Self-control (Shama) and Dignity of labour (Shrama).
The three jewles of Jainism, namely Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct depend upon the principle of equality. In the Bhagwad Gita the same principle is enshrined as the inner poise or the evenness of mind (Samatvam) or equal mindedness (Sama Chittatvam or Samata) and the man who attains this is called the one who sees with an equal eye (Sarvatra-sama-darshana). This principle of equality must be attained both in thought and in action. In thought it is the principle of Anekanta, in action it is the principle of Ahimsa.
The one significant thing that we have inherited from Bhagwan Mahavir is the art of living. I would add that he teaches the art of dying as well. The Jain way of living does not mean mere having and holding the breath; it means living a balanced life by keeping away from anger, hatred, wailing and complaining.
The basic nivrutti stand-point characterising Jainism is laid out as the foundationon which the entire structure of Jaina philosophy, with all its salient features, is raised systematically and homogeneously. Tapas or the sustained mortification and control over the body as related to the Jiva is elaborated and insisted on in the Jaina Canons. Even the harsher and more rigorous features of tapas are stressed. Upavasa and Sallekhana and Brahmacharya have been the distinctive features of Jainism. Principally, Jaina ethics specifies five minor vows (anuvratas), three social vows (gunavratas), and four Spiritual vows (shikshavratas) to be carried out by the householder.
In addition to the five minor vows, the householder observes three social vows that govern his external conduct in the world. Then there are four spiritual vows that reflect the purity of his heart. They govern his internal life and are expressed in a life that is marked by charity (dana).
Jain thinkers have prescribed sub-minor-vows as precautionary measurnes. First, there is reference to the Shalyas or disturbing factors such as ignorance, deceit and self-interest from which a person should free himself. The shalyas represent the negative requirements for the perfect practice of the vratas. In addition, there are the four bhavanas (virtues) that represent the positive means of supporting the vratas. These qualities, which a votary of non-violence must possess, are maitri (love, friendship), pramoda (joy and respect), karunya (compassion), and madhyastha (tolerance toward living beings). Next, there are the twelve minor vows known as anuprekshas (reflections). Broadly stated, the twelve topics of meditation are designed to serve as aids to spiritual progress to produce detachment and lead the devotee from the realm of desire to the path of renunciation.
In this way Jaina ethics prescribe thirty-five rules of conduct for the householder. By observing these rules, he comes to possess all of the twenty-one qualities that a fully developed individual must possess.
Having observed all the rules of conduct and having passed through the eleven religious stages (pratimas), the householder is now qualified to become an ascetic. The life of a monk is marked by a spirit of detachment. Through the practice of yoga and meditation, he finally attains the highest knowledge and becomes an enlightened soul. This is the ultimate end of human life according to Jaina ethics.
Besides these, Jaina ascetics lead a life of purity, celebacy, simplicity, selfless service and perfect austerity. They have nothing to claim of their own and all the living beings are their friends par excellence. One vow of spiritual discipline (shikshavrata) that the householder takes is that of hospitality to the monks (Atithi-Samvibhaga-Vrata). This involves the supply of food, books, medicine, etc. Acharya Samantabhadra calls the vow of hospitality physical service (Vaiyavratya). It makes the householder the parent of the monk. Monks who are sick, aged, and helpless are thus taken care of in their time of need. The ideal of such physical service was practised particularly in the area of medical help (Aushadhi Dana) and created a communal sense of security (Abhaya Dana).
Social service is a prominent outcome of Jaina ethics. It prescribes six daily duties for every householder, viz. adoration of the deity (Jina), veneration of the Gurus, study of literature and scriptures, practice of self discipline, observance of fasts and the curbing of appetites and giving of charity.
Moreover, Jainism is a leading religion in providing hospitals for animals and birds. Its epitome of true spirituality is found when a monk, wrapped in contemplation, takes time to mend the broken wing of a little sparrow.
Women have been accorded equal status in the Jain religion. In fact, there were more women in the order of Lord Mahavir than men. The scriptures record many tributes to exceptional women. The care of women, especially in critical situations, is given a higher priority than that of men. Mothers of the Tirthankaras are given special honourthrough communal worship. Legends abound in which women of high spiritual merit such as Brahmi, Sundari, Mallikumari, and Rajimati have come to the aid of men. Women have been recognized for their exceptional contributions in the field of education, culture and religion.
Jainism propounds that every man must first put a limit to the acquisition of property, and then entirely devote his time for public good. People engaged in independent professions such as lawyers, doctors, merchants, engineers, etc. must retire when they reach the limits fixed for them and thus make room for others to earn. Dig-vrata and Desha-vrata, limiting one's activities within certain prescribed sectors and within certain boundaries in a country also contribute in a way to lessen economic conflicts. It is expected of every well-to-do person to give ABHAYA DAN (The gift of fearlessness) to all those who are worried with the problem of food, shelter and clothing.
Ahimsa together with Aparigraha constitutes the ethical wholeness of self-control or self-restraint in social relationship; self-control is also the basis of higher spiritual life. It is happiness (Shreya) rather than pleasure (Preya) which is the goal of life. Thus self-purification (Atma-shuddhi) and not the acquisition of earthly or heavenly pleasures is the aim of life. The obstacles in the forms of delusion, ignorance and craving must be rooted out by practising the different vows or Vratas, throughout life, hence, the importance of a realised soul rather than of some mysterious agency is emphasised.
Jaina ethics are directed towards the liberation of the individual. Its orientation is therefore religious. Its end is the spiritualization of all areas of life in order to prepare individuals for the achievement of his ultimate goal. Its primary precept applicable to king and commoner alike is : Do your duty and do it in as humane a spirit as you can.
Jainism permits no distinction between religion (Dharma) and morality because both are concerned with the well-being of the individual in the world. The practice of Dharma enables them to achieve this end. In the words of the well-known Acharya Samantabhadra, "Religion is something which takes the living beings out of the worldly misery and establishes them in the highest bliss." This interconnection between religion and morality imparts to Jainism its distinctive feature.
Aparigraha has an economic aspect according to which one should set a limit to one's own needs, it is also enjoined that whatever surplus one may accumulate beyond these needs should be disposed of through charities. Aparigraha is the only means whereby the growing gulf between the rich and the poor can be peacefully bridged and a fair distribution of wealth achieved. Therefore, business dealings must be conducted in the non-acquisitive spirit of Aparigraha
Jainism's ancient advocacy of vegetarianism is receiving global attention today due to severe food shortages in certain parts of the world and to the researches of the scientific community. Vegetarianism is the only viable answer to world hunger. It is now a fairly well established fact that whatever is necessary or desirable for human nutrition in meats or flesh foods equally well found in and at times actually derived from vegetable products. Thus Jaina ethics train good, dutiful and morally conscious citizens who can help in maintaining world peace. Jainism asks us to subdue our passions and always act with mindfulness and caution. The neglect of these ethical rules results in individual and national crimes. By stressing the importance of pure, simple and honest life for the house-holders Jainism paves the way for the world peace.
The ethical code of Jainism is the most beautiful blend of Achara and Vichara (conduct and reflection). Almost all the usual group of virtues regarding conduct or Achara (like satya, ahimsa, brahmacharya, asteya, aparigraha) which are propounded in various religions finally owe their immense importance mainly to Jaina tradition. Jainism fosters the inculcation of all these virtues in its votaries through a very wise and practical hierarchical scale of anu-vratas, maha-vratas, etc. On the side of reflection or Vichara, it is Jainism which has stressed right from its very beginning tattvachintana. It is due to this insistence on tattvachintana in Jainism that we find that it is the Jainas who have been almost the sole originators in literary compositions in most of Indian languages. Jainism has contributed ably and subtly to very many chapters in the history of Indian philosophy.
The contribution of Jainism to Indian thought and life has been very significant. Actually vegetarianism as a habit prevailing throughout the Indian continent, atleast in states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, is an evidence of the Jain influence. Indian literature, sculpture, architecture and painting as also every other aspect of life have been significantly influenced by Jainism. To do justice to all these will require a separate book. Here it is Sufficiant it to say that almost every student of Indian culture or visitor to the Indian subcontinent has been considerably impressed by the sculpture and the arts of Jain temples, Jain paintings and the "inexhaustible stock of Jain literature".
The Jains played a very important part, first in the development of the ancient Prakrit languages, as also of the Dravidian languages of the South Tamil and Kannad. Somewhat later they adopted Sanskrit to elucidate the contents of the original prakrit canon and gradually produced a vast Sanskrit literature comprising valuable works on almost all subjects : Philosophy, logic, grammar, laxicography, poetics, politics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology. Indian literature in all its branches is thus indebted to the achievements of Jaina authors.
The Sanskrit literature of the Jainas contains a number of major philosophical and literary classics which belong to the ancient heritage of India. Umasvati, Siddhasena Divakara, Samantabhadra, Vidyananda, Haribhadra and Hemachandra made contribution which are enduring landmarks in the development of Indian thought and culture.
As regards the Jaina influence in the South, the laborious researches of Burness, Buhler, Burges Hoernle, Jacobi and Lewis Rice have almost conclusively proved that the Jainas profoundly influenced the political, religious and literary institutions of India. The Kural, an ethical poem of considerable importance in ancient Tamil literature, was composed about the 1st Century A.D., by Saint Tiruvalluvar, who was definitely a sympathizer of Jainism. It is also now almost certain that the Tolkappiyam, an authoritive work on Tamil grammar which is perhaps the earliest among the Tamil texts was composed by a Jaina. Among the other important Tamil works of Jaina authorship may be mentioned the Naladiyar and the like, composed during the early centuries of the Christian Era.
The "Augustan Age" of Tamil literature was the period of the predominance of the Jainas in intellect and learning. Jainism became the religion of some of the Pandyan Kings. Nevertheless they retained in full their intellectual vitality which had in earlier times produced such classical works as the "Kural", Valaiyapati, Silappadikaram and Jivaka Shinamani. Three of the five Tamil Mahakavyas, were composed by Jain writers. Moreover, the Jainas continued to enrich the Tamil vocabulary by introducing a large numbers of Sanskrit derivatives and bringing them into conformity with Tamil Phonetics.
The Jainas rendered valuable and extensive services to Kannada literature also. Some of the greatest among the Jaina poets flourished during the 10th Century A. D., the Golden Age of Kannada literature. Thus Ponna, a Jaina Saint upon whom the Rashtrakuta King Kannara conferred the title Kavichakravarti, composed Shantipurana and Bhuvanaika Ramabhyudaya during the period. Next we come to the great poet Pampa who was regarded as the father of Kannada literature. Another great Jaina writer of Kannada prose and poetry in that century was Chamundaraya, who besides being an able administrator and warrior, was a patron of Ranna, among others. It was he who had the colossal image of Gomateshvara carved at Shravana Belgola. Jaina influence on Telugu deserves careful investigation.
Almost every decade during medieval times in Gujarat saw a progressive enrichment of Gujarati literature with remarkable creations, major contributions here being the books written by the Jaina saints. Moreover, the unique service of the Jain Bhandaras in preserving the manuscripts, especially those on palm-leaves, is very memorable. Besides book-writing, the Jaina have carried out the laudable task of preserving and spreading knowledge.
The Jainas were also great patrons of art. Indian art, both Northern and Southern, owes to them a number of remarkable monuments. And in architecture their achievements are still greater.
As singular edifices illustrating the beauty of Jaina art, both in design and elaboration of workmanship, one may cite the temples of Mount Abu.
In South India, too, idol worship and temple building on a grand scale may be attributed fianlly to Jaina influence. The colossal monolithic Jaina statues of the South, such as that of Gomateshvara at Shravan Belgola, are among the wonders of the world. The grandeur of Jain sculpture is an outstanding aspect of Jain heritage. The inspiring dignity of Shatrunjay temples, the stately vastness of Shravan Belgola, the fine subtleties of Ranakpur tirtha and the artistic carvings of Delvada temples - are some of the unique examples of the Indian Cultural heritage. The Jaina literature is written in several Indian languages so as to reach many people is a rich compendium of diverse interests. The writings of these acaryas have manifold attractions not only for those in Jaina studies but also for lovers of literature, history, culture, philosophy, and comparative religion. It is to this vast source that we now turn for an understanding of Jaina beliefs of the universe, religion and mortality.
It was however, at the hands of Shalivahana the great artist who flourished in the reign of the connoiseeur of art, the Mogul Emperor Jehangir that Jaina art of painting attained its glory. In the private collection of Shri Narendra Singh Singhi of Calcutta, there is a manuscript Shalibhadracharita illuminated by this artist with more than 20 paintings, some of which are superbly executed. Jainism has thus significantly enriched Indian culture in the fields of ethics, philosophy, literature, science and aesthetics.
Lord Mahavir emphasized that man should not only care for the welfare and advancement of his soul but also help the soul of all sentient beings towards the same goal by giving them protection and by helping them to march forward on the path of salvation. He who loses his soul, loses everything.
Self-help and self-reliance constitute the basic motto of Jain religion. According to the Jain religion, 'Atma' is the creator of weal and woe : the notion of exploiting others by way of labour does not occur in this system. One of the twelve vows of a Jain Shravak specifically mentions that he would never expropriate others means of livelihood. One has to appreciate the inner meaning and spirit of such preaching.
In a book entitled "Dharmabindu Prakaran" Haribhadrasuri has enjoined upon the Jain Shravak to make his living in a judicious way. The Sadhu way of life is the climax of the self-reliant life style of the Jaina.
The Jaina have a rich political heritage. There were Jaina Kings like Chola King in the South and Kumarpal in Gujarat. And their royal counsellor or the minister always happened to be a Jain Shravak. This was the tradition in Gujarat and Rajasthan generation after generation. Alongwith administration, these ministers always kept in mind the welfare of the state and enjoyed the total confidence of the rulers. The Jain Shravakas also always remained trustworthy and honest and never betrayed anybody. The names of Vastupal-Tejpal, Vimalshah and Udayan Mantri have become immortal for their royal devotion and religious steadfastness.
The life style of the Jain Shravak is also remarkable. When the Kings were given to amorous pastime, drinking and gambling, it is noteworthy that the Jain communitycould remained aloof from all these vices. It was because of their strong will power, moral devotion and honesty that Jain Shravaks were appointed as Ministers by the Kings. Honesty is characteristic trait of the Jain Shravak heritage. Temperamentally the Jainas are averse to vices. The ancient Acharyas themselves conducted a drive so as to keep the Jain gentlemen away from seven vices that is alchoholism, non-vegetarianism, gambling, hunting, theft and keeping harlots. Ultimately this has come to stay as the symbolic life style of Jainas through the centuries.
The Jaina Sangh has been a democratic system for the last 2500 years, where every individual member of the community is heard and attended to. This democratic functioning amongst the Jainas is almost unique.
The social heritage of the Jainas is equally remarkable. The inscription of Chittodgadh bears evidence to the fact that Emperor Kumarpal gave donation for Shiva temples. The temples at Sopara constructed by Vastupal refer to a mosque built by Vastupal. Jagdushah gave land to the Muslims. Vijay Vallabhasuriji Maharaj was helpful in the construction of a gurudwara. Buddhisagarji Maharaj provided inspiration for constructing hostel for Harijans.
For world peace Ahimsa becomes an absolute necessacity. It must be practised throughtout the world in every city, village and town. Man must be made conscious of the supreme value of his soul and the utter uselessness of destructive weapons and armaments.
Nowadays people seem to think that religion has little importance in modern life, and that it cannot play any significant part in shaping the character of the people. To this, we could say in the words of Joseph Gear, "Those who have lived among the Jainas find them very kindly people, and better men because of their religion."
We should unite at this crucial juncture of world history and carry on ceaseless efforts to save humanity from extinction. It is essential that we try our best to revitalize our religious and moral principles and unite to ensure peace and harmony. Jainism preaches amity towards all beings, compassion for the miserable and detachment towards possessions.
In order to discourage violence, Bhagwan Mahavir proclaimed that the entire human race is one. At a time when communalism, hatred, violence and terrorism have become rampant in contemporary times, this preaching of Bhagwan Mahavir should be our true ideal. Indeed, we have many ideals before us but it is time to practice them.
If a world religion of this order is made to emerge, I have no hesitation in saying that most of the tenets of Jainism will always find a proud of pride in it. The Greeks used to say, "Call no man happy until he be dead." Whereas Jainism on the other hand, claims : "Call every man happy who lives his life following truthfully the principles of Jainism."
The message of Jainism has even a greater relevance today. By following this path, it will be possible for us to make a meaningful use of the wonderful inventions of science and technology and make them truely blissful and create global society free from hunger and hate - at peace with itself and with its environment. Thus there will be a heaven on this earth. What more does a human being want ?
Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world. The term Jaina means the devotee of Jinas (Spiritual Victors). Jinas are called so because they have won victory over passions of attachment, aversion, etc. that defile the soul. As a result, they have attained omniscience and supreme bliss. They are enlightened human teachers. They are also called Tirthankaras (Ford-makers). Here in the context, ford means tirthankara's words and teaching which help living beings to cross the ocean of misery or transmigratory existence. In every half-cycle of Time there flourish twenty-four Tirthankaras. The twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the present half-cycle of Time is Vardhamana, known as Mahavira.
Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. in a royal knightly family in Kshatriyakunda, a wellknown city of the ancient kingdom of Videha (modern Bihar). At the age of thirty, to find out the path to Ultimate Release from all misery he renounced the world, he embarked upon a spiritual career and lived a life of a Jaina ascetic. After twelve years of severe spiritual discipline of self-culture, self-control, austerities and deep meditation, he totally exterminated attachment completely and attained omniscience (kevalajnana). He became a perfected soul and prophet (Tirthankara). During the next thirty years of his career as a prophet he travelled on foot from place to place giving his message of peace and goodwill for the welfare of all living beings, without any discrimination of race, class, caste or sex. Eleven men accepted his spiritual leadership and became his chief disciples (ganadhara). He founded the order of nuns with Candanabala as its first member. The number of male and female ascetics increased and reached upto about 50,000. The lay followers were about half a million.
Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshva, the penultimate Tirthankara, who lived about 250 years earlier in Varanasi. The historicity of Parshva is proved by the modern historians and scholars. So Mahavira was not the founder of Jaina religion. He was the rejuvenator, propagator and exponent of Jaina religion which had been taught by Parshva and other omniscient teachers of his ever present and imperishable Jaina tradition.
Initially the followers of Jainism lived throughout the Ganges Valley. Around the time of Ashoka (250 B.C.) most Jainas migrated to the city of Mathura on the Yamuna river. Later, many travelled westword to Rajasthan and Gujarat and south word to Maharashtra and Karnataka, where Jainism rapidly grew in popularity.
The Jaina canon contains some sixty texts and is divided into three main group, the Purva (old texts : 14 books), the Angas (limbs : 12 books) and the Angabahya(subsidiary canon). Not all are extant. In addition to the threefold canon itself, there are extensive commentaries written in Prakrit and Sanskrit by the monk scholars. The Tattvartha Surta, written in the second century A.D., belongs to this group. Its author Umasvati is held in high esteem by both Svetambar and Digambar tradition. It for the first time presents in Sanskrit the entire canonical material on various subjects in aphoristic style and in classified form succinctly and systematically. In Jainism, the essence of religion lies in an intuitive apprehension of the purity of consciousness. According to Jainism, the love of truth is inherent in each self, but it requires spiritual exercise for its manifestation. Once this love of truth is manifested, it will lead the self to liberation sooner or later.
The conduct of a person, in the Jain view cannot be isolated from his way of life. For the true Jaina, Truth and Values are inseperable. This is where right knowledge comes in. As Acharya Samantabhadra in his Yuktyanushasanam (Verse 15) says :
"Without knowing the real nature of things, all moral distinctions between bondage and liberation, merit and demerit, pleasure and pain will be absurd."
The values of Jain religion are based on five vows viz.- non-violence, devotion to truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession. The entire life style of the Jain Shravak and the Jain Sadhu emanates from these vows and the foremost is non-violence.
Ahimsa, non-violence, has been the sheet-anchor of Jainism. Ahimsa is one of the basic virtues. No where else in the other religious traditions has this basic virtue been so scientifically, scrupulously and thoroughly integrated with the main doctrine. Jainism is the only tradition which has consistently allowed this tenet soak into the very essentials of its teachings and practices. This singular uncompromising emphasis on Ahimsa is the special and exclusive feature of Jainism. In Jainism, Ahimsa is not mere human sympathy; it is empathy, the urge to identify oneself completely with other persons, other living beings, with the whole universe.
Bhagwan Mahavir said, "If you kill someone, it is yourself you kill. If you overpower someone, it is yourself you overpower. If you torment some one, it is yourself you torment. If you harm someone, it is yourself you harm." A wise man knows this and so he does not kill, nor does he overpower or torment anyone.
The heart of Jainism is non-violence. Positively stated, Jainism is a religion of compassion, universal love and friendliness. It aims at the welfare of all living beings, and not of man alone. It maintains that living beings are infinite, all so called empty spaces in the universe are filled with minute living beings. According to it, there are countless single-sense organisms that take the subtlest possible units of material elements -earth, water, fire and air - as their bodies. Fresh earth is alive but when it is baked it becomes dead. Fresh water from a well, etc. is alive but when it is boiled or influenced by mixing some other substance it becomes dead. Vegetables, trees, plants, fruits, etc. do have life but when they are dried, cut or cooked they die. To avoid injury to them as far as possible, man is advised to use them discreetly. He should resist from polluting water, air, etc. and thereby perpetrating violence to them. Worms, insects, animals, etc. help in keeping ecological balance thus they help man. And domestic animals have for ages been a constant and faithful aid to man in civilizing himself. From the ultimate standpoint of their original pure pristine state, all living beings are uniform in their nature. Jainism teaches to look upon them as upon one's own self.
Inflicting injury to them is inflicting injury to one's ownself. The Jain dictum parasparopagraho jivanam, that is 'living beings render service to one another' offers an endearing alternative to the modern Darwinian formula of 'survival of the fittest.' The life of a living being is a life of mutual cooperation andassistance. Industry, labour, service and sacrifice of innumerable living beings are there behind the sustenance and growth of an individual. Thus every individual is indebted to the universal society of all beings. Even virtues and meritorious qualities can never be cultivated and fostered in isolation.
This concept of Ahimsa, non-violence, has evolved from logical thinking and from experience. It has an almost empirical basis. It has emerged from the doctrine of the equality of all souls. Everyone wants to live, nobody likes to die. Violence enters first in thought, it then manifests itself in speech and then in deeds. That is why they say that war is born in the minds of men. The quest for ahimsa is centred in Anekantavada, the philosophy which accomodates a multiplicity of points-of-view and of perspectives.
In Jain philosophy Ahimsa is said to be the supreme religion and himsa is considered to be source of all evil and of all miseries. Ahimsa is not limited to not harming the human beings, it extends to all living beings. This philosophy believes in the unity of life and regards all living beings as equal. He who can be cruel to animals can be cruel to human beings too. Further, cruelty is not only an aspect of external behaviour, but it is also an inner evil tendency. He who is cruel at heart will behave cruelly towards animals as well as human beings. He who is compassionate at heart, will behave compassionately towards all. Moreover, the jain religion believes in the cycle of birth and rebirth. The soul is in one Yoni (existence) today; it may be in another Yoni tomorrow. It may be a fly today and a human tomorrow. This being so, man has no right to harm other living creations. One should behave sympathetically towards all, friends as well as foes. In fact there should be no enemy. Such is the importance of Ahimsa in Jain philosophy.
(Nothing is higher than the Meru mountain; nothing is vaster than the sky. Similarly, there is no better religion than Ahimsa).
It is one of the tenets of Jainism that all living beings desire life and not death. No one has the right to take away the life of any other being; to kill a living being is the greatest of sins. Life is dear to everyone, and we must have respect for life. Not only "Love and Let Live" but "Live and Help Others Live" should be our principle. Just as the head of a family looks after the welfare of the members of the family, a human being, who enjoys the highest place in the evolution of life, should look after the welfare of other lower orders of creations.
The universe is full of living creations, big and small, and, therefore, it is impossible to exist without killing or injuring some of the smallest of the living beings. Even in the process of breathing, or drinking or eating, we almost unconsciously kill many sentient beings ? Therefore, according to Jainism the minimum of killing should be our ideal. Moreover, it is more serious where killing is done intentionally or through indifference. Therefore, great care should be taken in all our daily activities to see that the minimum of violence is committed by our deeds, speech and mind.
In the universe, there are different forms, different orders, of life, such as human beings, animals, insects, trees and plants, bacteria and even still smaller lives which perhaps be seen only through the most powerful of microscopes. Jainism has classified all the living beings according to their sense organs.
Jainism firmly believes that life is sacred, irrespective of caste, colour, creed or nationality and therefore not only physical or mental injury to life should be avoided, but all possible kindness should be shown towards all the living things. This should be the true spirit of Ahimsa. Jainism believes that more weapons are in no way an effectiveanswer to weapons. Lord Mahavir has emphatically declared in "Acharanga Sutra" that one weapon may be stronger or superior to another, but the path of Ahimsa or peace remains unsurpassed. Fire cannot be put out by fire. It is our duty to stop adding fuel to the fire. Jaina scriptures say that a piece of blood-stained cloth cannot be washed with blood, we need water to do it. To achieve peace, world peace, we have to stop the race of armaments and we have to have an unshakeable faith in Samyag Darshana in the effective validity of Ahimsa. For who can claim final and absolute victory in the race for armaments? Like Arjuna the nations believing in violent means shall have to declare, "Nor do we know which for us is better whether we conquer them or they conquer us." Ahimsa teaches us that recourse to armed force is an infallible sign of the brute in man, that war neither profits the victor nor the vanquished.
The second great vow is Truth. To speak the truth, one require moral courage. Only those who have conquered greed, fear, anger, jealousy, ego, vulgarity, frivolity etc. can speak the truth when required.
Jainism always advocates the generous view, the view that there can be a grain of truth in what the other persons say, Anekantadrishti, for truth is relative. As you have full faith in what is truth from your point of view, so too one should make room for the view-point of others. Thus, Anekantavada (Theory of many-sidedness) enables one to tolerate and co-ordinate a wide range of points-of-view in a spirit of co-operation even if at times, these may be contradictory. This is the true method involving ceaseless endeavour to search out truth. To regard everything from a relative point of view and to see an element of truth in everything, this is Anekantavada. Not 'mine is the truth' but 'truth is mine' should be one's motto.
Anekantavada is the heart of Jainism. It constitutes its most significant contribution to religious thought, and especially in the field of ethics. It teaches that the kingdom of truth can be reached through plurality of ways. It also teaches not to impose one's own thoughts or views on others, and to try to reconcile the thoughts or view-points of others with one's own. This principle, therefore, if earnestly put into practice shows us how to overcome our personal view of things, which is often short-sighted, selfish and partial. It shows us how to remove discord and disharmony and establish concord and harmony in life, by being catholic and tolerant in our outlook and attiude towards others.
The principle of Anekantavada should be applied to every field of life. It shows how to respect candid opinions of all free thinkers of the world; the roots of modern democracy could be traced in this Jaina principle. It establishes unity in diversity. It promises reconciliation of divergent or conflicting statements, thoughts, ideologies, systems, religions etc. The principle of Anekantavada therefore can be a great instrument for promoting peaceful co-existence and unity in the world.
Another great vow is the vow of non-stealing. Man should abandon all kinds of stealing. We should not take anything that is not given to us. Nor should we help anyone take what is not given to him.
The fourth great vow is that of celibacy. Bhagwan Mahavir added this great vow to the four of Parshvanath's and estabished its distinct importance. He said that all physical and mental miseries of the world are caused by the thirst for sensual pleasures. For all sensual pleasures are ultimately harmful.
The fifth great vow is of non-possession. Possession is the source of evil. Possession is not only the acquisition or accumulation of things but also temptation for and attachment to things. No wonder C. Rajgopalachari wrote, "Restraint is the mark of Indian Culture." This sense of possession is the source of all the five evils viz. violence, untruthfulness, stealing, sensual pleasure and attachment. Today we see that the chief cause of the boundless miseries of the present world is man's uncontrolled tendency to possess. Man believes that possession brings happiness. But in fact possession is thecause of miseries and bondage. Possession enslaves man to external things. As the bee sucks honey from the flower without destroying it, so the welfare seeking man should do the least possible harm to another in his worldy life. Thus, expounding the five great vows Bhagwan Mahavir says, "As the wind blows across flaming fire, so ideal people observing these vows will pass through the Samsara (transmigratory existence) and attain eternal joy." Lord Mahavir has said that wants and desires have no end and only the sky is the limit for them.
Attachment to wordly objects results in the everlasting cycle of birth and death. Therefore, one who aspires spiritual liberation should withdraw from all attachment to pleasures which arises because of the indiscriminate uses of the five senses.
Jainism believes in the potential divinity of man. Given freedom for development, every individual can attain supreme spiritual progress. Hence, any interference with an individual's development would lead to spiritual degeneration. Violence is nothing but such an interference with individual freedom, hence, it must be shunned in thought, word and deed.
Bhagwan Mahavir discarded the false importance of gender and caste and established the importance of good conduct.
(One is a Brahmin, a Kshatriya, a Vaishya or a Shoodra according to one's Karma). Thus, he led shoodras out of the darkness of slavery and lifted them up from beastliness to godliness. He said that a man or woman irrespective of his or her caste could practise religion. In fact, he said that a Monk should not have any self conscionsness regarding his apperance, knowledge, penance or celibacy. This was Bhagwan Mahavir's profoundly revolutionary social vision. He changed the whole situation. This true insight given from the depth of his soul made a permanent impact on the society. Bhagwan Mahavir expressed his thoughts fearlessly and firmly and liberated people from the bondage of a certain class of people, from the practices of violence and mental slavery. He led the society out of the bondage of the caste system. It is really regrettable that even in some civilised countries, prejudice due to colour, race, or nationality still persists and keeps the people divided anongst themselves. Experience teaches us that colour or racial arrogance cannot continue to exist for long. Humanity has to be reminded again and again that the entire human race is but one family, irrespective of differences of colour, race or nationality. "All humanity is one ", is one of the fundamental teachings that Jainism offers.
There are three distinct contributions of Jainism to Indian Culture viz. Equality (Sama), Self-control (Shama) and Dignity of labour (Shrama).
The three jewles of Jainism, namely Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct depend upon the principle of equality. In the Bhagwad Gita the same principle is enshrined as the inner poise or the evenness of mind (Samatvam) or equal mindedness (Sama Chittatvam or Samata) and the man who attains this is called the one who sees with an equal eye (Sarvatra-sama-darshana). This principle of equality must be attained both in thought and in action. In thought it is the principle of Anekanta, in action it is the principle of Ahimsa.
The one significant thing that we have inherited from Bhagwan Mahavir is the art of living. I would add that he teaches the art of dying as well. The Jain way of living does not mean mere having and holding the breath; it means living a balanced life by keeping away from anger, hatred, wailing and complaining.
The basic nivrutti stand-point characterising Jainism is laid out as the foundationon which the entire structure of Jaina philosophy, with all its salient features, is raised systematically and homogeneously. Tapas or the sustained mortification and control over the body as related to the Jiva is elaborated and insisted on in the Jaina Canons. Even the harsher and more rigorous features of tapas are stressed. Upavasa and Sallekhana and Brahmacharya have been the distinctive features of Jainism. Principally, Jaina ethics specifies five minor vows (anuvratas), three social vows (gunavratas), and four Spiritual vows (shikshavratas) to be carried out by the householder.
In addition to the five minor vows, the householder observes three social vows that govern his external conduct in the world. Then there are four spiritual vows that reflect the purity of his heart. They govern his internal life and are expressed in a life that is marked by charity (dana).
Jain thinkers have prescribed sub-minor-vows as precautionary measurnes. First, there is reference to the Shalyas or disturbing factors such as ignorance, deceit and self-interest from which a person should free himself. The shalyas represent the negative requirements for the perfect practice of the vratas. In addition, there are the four bhavanas (virtues) that represent the positive means of supporting the vratas. These qualities, which a votary of non-violence must possess, are maitri (love, friendship), pramoda (joy and respect), karunya (compassion), and madhyastha (tolerance toward living beings). Next, there are the twelve minor vows known as anuprekshas (reflections). Broadly stated, the twelve topics of meditation are designed to serve as aids to spiritual progress to produce detachment and lead the devotee from the realm of desire to the path of renunciation.
In this way Jaina ethics prescribe thirty-five rules of conduct for the householder. By observing these rules, he comes to possess all of the twenty-one qualities that a fully developed individual must possess.
Having observed all the rules of conduct and having passed through the eleven religious stages (pratimas), the householder is now qualified to become an ascetic. The life of a monk is marked by a spirit of detachment. Through the practice of yoga and meditation, he finally attains the highest knowledge and becomes an enlightened soul. This is the ultimate end of human life according to Jaina ethics.
Besides these, Jaina ascetics lead a life of purity, celebacy, simplicity, selfless service and perfect austerity. They have nothing to claim of their own and all the living beings are their friends par excellence. One vow of spiritual discipline (shikshavrata) that the householder takes is that of hospitality to the monks (Atithi-Samvibhaga-Vrata). This involves the supply of food, books, medicine, etc. Acharya Samantabhadra calls the vow of hospitality physical service (Vaiyavratya). It makes the householder the parent of the monk. Monks who are sick, aged, and helpless are thus taken care of in their time of need. The ideal of such physical service was practised particularly in the area of medical help (Aushadhi Dana) and created a communal sense of security (Abhaya Dana).
Social service is a prominent outcome of Jaina ethics. It prescribes six daily duties for every householder, viz. adoration of the deity (Jina), veneration of the Gurus, study of literature and scriptures, practice of self discipline, observance of fasts and the curbing of appetites and giving of charity.
Moreover, Jainism is a leading religion in providing hospitals for animals and birds. Its epitome of true spirituality is found when a monk, wrapped in contemplation, takes time to mend the broken wing of a little sparrow.
Women have been accorded equal status in the Jain religion. In fact, there were more women in the order of Lord Mahavir than men. The scriptures record many tributes to exceptional women. The care of women, especially in critical situations, is given a higher priority than that of men. Mothers of the Tirthankaras are given special honourthrough communal worship. Legends abound in which women of high spiritual merit such as Brahmi, Sundari, Mallikumari, and Rajimati have come to the aid of men. Women have been recognized for their exceptional contributions in the field of education, culture and religion.
Jainism propounds that every man must first put a limit to the acquisition of property, and then entirely devote his time for public good. People engaged in independent professions such as lawyers, doctors, merchants, engineers, etc. must retire when they reach the limits fixed for them and thus make room for others to earn. Dig-vrata and Desha-vrata, limiting one's activities within certain prescribed sectors and within certain boundaries in a country also contribute in a way to lessen economic conflicts. It is expected of every well-to-do person to give ABHAYA DAN (The gift of fearlessness) to all those who are worried with the problem of food, shelter and clothing.
Ahimsa together with Aparigraha constitutes the ethical wholeness of self-control or self-restraint in social relationship; self-control is also the basis of higher spiritual life. It is happiness (Shreya) rather than pleasure (Preya) which is the goal of life. Thus self-purification (Atma-shuddhi) and not the acquisition of earthly or heavenly pleasures is the aim of life. The obstacles in the forms of delusion, ignorance and craving must be rooted out by practising the different vows or Vratas, throughout life, hence, the importance of a realised soul rather than of some mysterious agency is emphasised.
Jaina ethics are directed towards the liberation of the individual. Its orientation is therefore religious. Its end is the spiritualization of all areas of life in order to prepare individuals for the achievement of his ultimate goal. Its primary precept applicable to king and commoner alike is : Do your duty and do it in as humane a spirit as you can.
Jainism permits no distinction between religion (Dharma) and morality because both are concerned with the well-being of the individual in the world. The practice of Dharma enables them to achieve this end. In the words of the well-known Acharya Samantabhadra, "Religion is something which takes the living beings out of the worldly misery and establishes them in the highest bliss." This interconnection between religion and morality imparts to Jainism its distinctive feature.
Aparigraha has an economic aspect according to which one should set a limit to one's own needs, it is also enjoined that whatever surplus one may accumulate beyond these needs should be disposed of through charities. Aparigraha is the only means whereby the growing gulf between the rich and the poor can be peacefully bridged and a fair distribution of wealth achieved. Therefore, business dealings must be conducted in the non-acquisitive spirit of Aparigraha
Jainism's ancient advocacy of vegetarianism is receiving global attention today due to severe food shortages in certain parts of the world and to the researches of the scientific community. Vegetarianism is the only viable answer to world hunger. It is now a fairly well established fact that whatever is necessary or desirable for human nutrition in meats or flesh foods equally well found in and at times actually derived from vegetable products. Thus Jaina ethics train good, dutiful and morally conscious citizens who can help in maintaining world peace. Jainism asks us to subdue our passions and always act with mindfulness and caution. The neglect of these ethical rules results in individual and national crimes. By stressing the importance of pure, simple and honest life for the house-holders Jainism paves the way for the world peace.
The ethical code of Jainism is the most beautiful blend of Achara and Vichara (conduct and reflection). Almost all the usual group of virtues regarding conduct or Achara (like satya, ahimsa, brahmacharya, asteya, aparigraha) which are propounded in various religions finally owe their immense importance mainly to Jaina tradition. Jainism fosters the inculcation of all these virtues in its votaries through a very wise and practical hierarchical scale of anu-vratas, maha-vratas, etc. On the side of reflection or Vichara, it is Jainism which has stressed right from its very beginning tattvachintana. It is due to this insistence on tattvachintana in Jainism that we find that it is the Jainas who have been almost the sole originators in literary compositions in most of Indian languages. Jainism has contributed ably and subtly to very many chapters in the history of Indian philosophy.
The contribution of Jainism to Indian thought and life has been very significant. Actually vegetarianism as a habit prevailing throughout the Indian continent, atleast in states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, is an evidence of the Jain influence. Indian literature, sculpture, architecture and painting as also every other aspect of life have been significantly influenced by Jainism. To do justice to all these will require a separate book. Here it is Sufficiant it to say that almost every student of Indian culture or visitor to the Indian subcontinent has been considerably impressed by the sculpture and the arts of Jain temples, Jain paintings and the "inexhaustible stock of Jain literature".
The Jains played a very important part, first in the development of the ancient Prakrit languages, as also of the Dravidian languages of the South Tamil and Kannad. Somewhat later they adopted Sanskrit to elucidate the contents of the original prakrit canon and gradually produced a vast Sanskrit literature comprising valuable works on almost all subjects : Philosophy, logic, grammar, laxicography, poetics, politics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology. Indian literature in all its branches is thus indebted to the achievements of Jaina authors.
The Sanskrit literature of the Jainas contains a number of major philosophical and literary classics which belong to the ancient heritage of India. Umasvati, Siddhasena Divakara, Samantabhadra, Vidyananda, Haribhadra and Hemachandra made contribution which are enduring landmarks in the development of Indian thought and culture.
As regards the Jaina influence in the South, the laborious researches of Burness, Buhler, Burges Hoernle, Jacobi and Lewis Rice have almost conclusively proved that the Jainas profoundly influenced the political, religious and literary institutions of India. The Kural, an ethical poem of considerable importance in ancient Tamil literature, was composed about the 1st Century A.D., by Saint Tiruvalluvar, who was definitely a sympathizer of Jainism. It is also now almost certain that the Tolkappiyam, an authoritive work on Tamil grammar which is perhaps the earliest among the Tamil texts was composed by a Jaina. Among the other important Tamil works of Jaina authorship may be mentioned the Naladiyar and the like, composed during the early centuries of the Christian Era.
The "Augustan Age" of Tamil literature was the period of the predominance of the Jainas in intellect and learning. Jainism became the religion of some of the Pandyan Kings. Nevertheless they retained in full their intellectual vitality which had in earlier times produced such classical works as the "Kural", Valaiyapati, Silappadikaram and Jivaka Shinamani. Three of the five Tamil Mahakavyas, were composed by Jain writers. Moreover, the Jainas continued to enrich the Tamil vocabulary by introducing a large numbers of Sanskrit derivatives and bringing them into conformity with Tamil Phonetics.
The Jainas rendered valuable and extensive services to Kannada literature also. Some of the greatest among the Jaina poets flourished during the 10th Century A. D., the Golden Age of Kannada literature. Thus Ponna, a Jaina Saint upon whom the Rashtrakuta King Kannara conferred the title Kavichakravarti, composed Shantipurana and Bhuvanaika Ramabhyudaya during the period. Next we come to the great poet Pampa who was regarded as the father of Kannada literature. Another great Jaina writer of Kannada prose and poetry in that century was Chamundaraya, who besides being an able administrator and warrior, was a patron of Ranna, among others. It was he who had the colossal image of Gomateshvara carved at Shravana Belgola. Jaina influence on Telugu deserves careful investigation.
Almost every decade during medieval times in Gujarat saw a progressive enrichment of Gujarati literature with remarkable creations, major contributions here being the books written by the Jaina saints. Moreover, the unique service of the Jain Bhandaras in preserving the manuscripts, especially those on palm-leaves, is very memorable. Besides book-writing, the Jaina have carried out the laudable task of preserving and spreading knowledge.
The Jainas were also great patrons of art. Indian art, both Northern and Southern, owes to them a number of remarkable monuments. And in architecture their achievements are still greater.
As singular edifices illustrating the beauty of Jaina art, both in design and elaboration of workmanship, one may cite the temples of Mount Abu.
In South India, too, idol worship and temple building on a grand scale may be attributed fianlly to Jaina influence. The colossal monolithic Jaina statues of the South, such as that of Gomateshvara at Shravan Belgola, are among the wonders of the world. The grandeur of Jain sculpture is an outstanding aspect of Jain heritage. The inspiring dignity of Shatrunjay temples, the stately vastness of Shravan Belgola, the fine subtleties of Ranakpur tirtha and the artistic carvings of Delvada temples - are some of the unique examples of the Indian Cultural heritage. The Jaina literature is written in several Indian languages so as to reach many people is a rich compendium of diverse interests. The writings of these acaryas have manifold attractions not only for those in Jaina studies but also for lovers of literature, history, culture, philosophy, and comparative religion. It is to this vast source that we now turn for an understanding of Jaina beliefs of the universe, religion and mortality.
It was however, at the hands of Shalivahana the great artist who flourished in the reign of the connoiseeur of art, the Mogul Emperor Jehangir that Jaina art of painting attained its glory. In the private collection of Shri Narendra Singh Singhi of Calcutta, there is a manuscript Shalibhadracharita illuminated by this artist with more than 20 paintings, some of which are superbly executed. Jainism has thus significantly enriched Indian culture in the fields of ethics, philosophy, literature, science and aesthetics.
Lord Mahavir emphasized that man should not only care for the welfare and advancement of his soul but also help the soul of all sentient beings towards the same goal by giving them protection and by helping them to march forward on the path of salvation. He who loses his soul, loses everything.
Self-help and self-reliance constitute the basic motto of Jain religion. According to the Jain religion, 'Atma' is the creator of weal and woe : the notion of exploiting others by way of labour does not occur in this system. One of the twelve vows of a Jain Shravak specifically mentions that he would never expropriate others means of livelihood. One has to appreciate the inner meaning and spirit of such preaching.
In a book entitled "Dharmabindu Prakaran" Haribhadrasuri has enjoined upon the Jain Shravak to make his living in a judicious way. The Sadhu way of life is the climax of the self-reliant life style of the Jaina.
The Jaina have a rich political heritage. There were Jaina Kings like Chola King in the South and Kumarpal in Gujarat. And their royal counsellor or the minister always happened to be a Jain Shravak. This was the tradition in Gujarat and Rajasthan generation after generation. Alongwith administration, these ministers always kept in mind the welfare of the state and enjoyed the total confidence of the rulers. The Jain Shravakas also always remained trustworthy and honest and never betrayed anybody. The names of Vastupal-Tejpal, Vimalshah and Udayan Mantri have become immortal for their royal devotion and religious steadfastness.
The life style of the Jain Shravak is also remarkable. When the Kings were given to amorous pastime, drinking and gambling, it is noteworthy that the Jain communitycould remained aloof from all these vices. It was because of their strong will power, moral devotion and honesty that Jain Shravaks were appointed as Ministers by the Kings. Honesty is characteristic trait of the Jain Shravak heritage. Temperamentally the Jainas are averse to vices. The ancient Acharyas themselves conducted a drive so as to keep the Jain gentlemen away from seven vices that is alchoholism, non-vegetarianism, gambling, hunting, theft and keeping harlots. Ultimately this has come to stay as the symbolic life style of Jainas through the centuries.
The Jaina Sangh has been a democratic system for the last 2500 years, where every individual member of the community is heard and attended to. This democratic functioning amongst the Jainas is almost unique.
The social heritage of the Jainas is equally remarkable. The inscription of Chittodgadh bears evidence to the fact that Emperor Kumarpal gave donation for Shiva temples. The temples at Sopara constructed by Vastupal refer to a mosque built by Vastupal. Jagdushah gave land to the Muslims. Vijay Vallabhasuriji Maharaj was helpful in the construction of a gurudwara. Buddhisagarji Maharaj provided inspiration for constructing hostel for Harijans.
For world peace Ahimsa becomes an absolute necessacity. It must be practised throughtout the world in every city, village and town. Man must be made conscious of the supreme value of his soul and the utter uselessness of destructive weapons and armaments.
Nowadays people seem to think that religion has little importance in modern life, and that it cannot play any significant part in shaping the character of the people. To this, we could say in the words of Joseph Gear, "Those who have lived among the Jainas find them very kindly people, and better men because of their religion."
We should unite at this crucial juncture of world history and carry on ceaseless efforts to save humanity from extinction. It is essential that we try our best to revitalize our religious and moral principles and unite to ensure peace and harmony. Jainism preaches amity towards all beings, compassion for the miserable and detachment towards possessions.
In order to discourage violence, Bhagwan Mahavir proclaimed that the entire human race is one. At a time when communalism, hatred, violence and terrorism have become rampant in contemporary times, this preaching of Bhagwan Mahavir should be our true ideal. Indeed, we have many ideals before us but it is time to practice them.
If a world religion of this order is made to emerge, I have no hesitation in saying that most of the tenets of Jainism will always find a proud of pride in it. The Greeks used to say, "Call no man happy until he be dead." Whereas Jainism on the other hand, claims : "Call every man happy who lives his life following truthfully the principles of Jainism."
The message of Jainism has even a greater relevance today. By following this path, it will be possible for us to make a meaningful use of the wonderful inventions of science and technology and make them truely blissful and create global society free from hunger and hate - at peace with itself and with its environment. Thus there will be a heaven on this earth. What more does a human being want ?
May 5, 2008
Jainism Before Mahavira
The history of Jainism before Mahävïra and Pärávanätha is shrouded in considerable obscurity. Material which can reconstruct it is scanty, dubious and capable of different interpretations. Scholars have, therefore, come to widely divergent conclusions. The Jainas themselves believe that their religion is eternal and that before Mahävïra (C.600 B.C.), there lived twentythree Tïrthaõkaras who appeared at certain intervals to propagate true religion for the salvation of the world. Some scholars1 hold that there are traces of the existence of Áramaîa culture even in pre-Vedic times. H. Jacobi2 has proved both from the Buddhist and the Jaina records that Pärávanätha, the immediate predecessor of Mahävïra, who is said to have flourished some 250 years before him, is an historical personality.
According to the tradition preserved in the scriptures, Jaina religion is eternal, and it has been revealed again and again in every cyclic period of the world by innumerable Tïrthaõkaras. The whole span of time is divided into two equal cycles, Utsarpiîï (ascending) Käla and Avasarpiîï (descending) Käla. Each Utsarpiîï and Avasarpiîï Käla is subdivided into six parts. The six divisions of Avasarpiîï are known as Suÿamä - Suÿamä (Happy-Happy), Suÿamä (Happy), Suÿamä - Duÿamä (Happy-Unhappy), Duÿamä-Suÿamä (Unhappy-Happy), Duÿamä (Unhappy) and Duÿamä-Duÿamä (Unhappy-Unhappy). The six divisions of Utsarpiîï are Duÿamä-Duÿamä (Unhappy-Unhappy), Duÿamä (Unhappy), Duÿamä-Suÿamä (Unhappy-Happy), Suÿamä-Duÿamä (Happy-Unhappy), Suÿamä (Happy) and Suÿamä-Suÿamä (Happy-Happy). The Utsarpiîï, therefore, marks a period of gradual evolution and the Avasarpiîï that of gradual devolution or decline in human innocence and happiness, bodily strength and stature, span of life, and the length of the age itself, the First age being the longest and the Sixth the shortest. Conditions in the First, Second and Third ages of Avasarpiîï are those of Bhogabhümi–happy and contented, enjoyment based, entirely dependent on nature, without any law or society–while life in the other three ages is described as being that of a Karmabhümi, since it is based on and revolves round individual as well as collective effort. The fourth age of either cycle is supposed to be the best from the point of view of human civilization and culture, and it is this age that produces a number of Tïrthaõkaras and other great personages. We are now living in the Fifth age of the Avasarpiîï (descending half-circle) of the current cycle of time, which commenced a few years (3 years and 31/2 months) after Mahävïra's nirväna (527 B.C.) and is of 21000 years duration."3
Twentyfour Tïrthaõkaras appeared at certain intervals and preached the true religion for the salvation of the world. Their names are : (1) Ôÿabha, (2) Ajita, (3) Saãbhava, (4) Abhinandana, (5) Sumati, (6) Padmaprabha, (7) Supäráva, (8) Candraprabha, (9) Suvidhi or Puÿhpadanta, (10) Áïtala, (11) Áreyäãáa, (12) Väsapüjya, (13) Vimala, (14) Ananta, (15) Dharma, (16) Áänti, (17) Kunthu, (18) Ara, (19) Malli, (20) Munisuvrata, (21) Nami, (22) Nemi, (23) Päráva, and (24) Vardhamäna or Mahävïra.
All the Tïrthaõkaras were Kÿatrïyas; Munisuvrata and Nami belonged to Harivaãáa, and the remaining twentytwo to the Ikÿaväku race. Malli, according to the Ávetämbaras, was a woman, but this the Digambaras deny, for according to them no female can attain liberation.
Ôÿabha as Founder of Jainism
According to the Jaina tradition, ôÿabha, who belonged to the Ikÿväku family of Ayodhyä, was the founder of Jainism. His parents were Näbhïräja and Marudevï. His son's name was Bharata after whom India is said to be named. He was the first Tïrthaõkara who was born in an age when people, primitive and illiterate, did not know any art. He is said to have taught the arts of agriculture, cooking, writing, pottery, painting and sculpture for the first time. It was during his time that the institution of marriage, the ceremony of cremating the dead, building of the mounds and the festivals in honour of Indra and the Nägas came into existence. We may, thus, look upon him as a great pioneer in the history of human progress.
It is often said that there is a reference to Tïrthaõkara Ôÿabha in the Vedic literature. Some Vedic preceptors paid reverence to Tïrthaõkara Ôÿabha, and regarded him as the Mahädeva. In the Ôgveda,4 and the Taittirïya Äraîyaka,5 Vätaraáanas have been mentioned, and in the same context an excellent tribute has been paid to Keáï.6 This Keáï alludes to Ôÿabha because in Jaina literature, there is a tradition that Tïrthaõkara Ôÿabha was called Keáï. Even on the ancient images of Tïrthaõkara Ôÿabha, locks of hair are noticed. In the Ôgveda,7 Keáï has been mentioned along with Vôÿabha. From this it is argued that Vôÿabha lived before the Vedic times and was the first fountain-head of Áramaîa culture. It is from the context of the Ôgveda that Tïrthaõkara Ôÿabha has been depicted as one who sponsored Vätaraáana Áramaîas in the Bhägavata Puräîa8 of the eighth century A.D. From about the fourth or third century B.C., it seems that Ôÿabha became popular as the first Tïrthaõkara, and the founder of Jainism.
Ariÿûanemi or Neminätha as Tïrthaõkara
Besides Ôÿabhadeva, Ariÿtanemi or Neminätha has also been mentioned as the Tïrthaõkara of the Jainas. He is said to be the twenty-second Tïrthaõkara. He was the son of a king named Samudravijaya of Áaurïpura, a big town on the bank of the Yamunä. His mother's name was Áivädevï. He was named Ariÿtanemi because his mother saw in a dream a Nemi, the outer rim of a wheel, which consisted of Riÿûa stones flying up to the sky. Giranära or Raivataka hill is considered to be his Nirväîa place.
Neminätha is connected with the legend of Sri Kôÿîa as his relative. According to the Triÿaáûiáaläkäpuruÿacarita, he was a cousin of Lord Kôÿîa who negotiated his marriage with Räjamatï, daughter of Ugrasena, ruler of Dvärikä, but Neminätha, taking compassion on the animals which were to be slaughtered in connection with the marriage feast, left the marriage procession suddenly and renounced the world. He then left Dvärikä and proceeded to a garden called Sahasramarvana on the mount Raivataka, where he practised asceticism and attained salvation. According to the Kalpasütra, he lived up to the age of 1,000 years.
The Chändogya Upaniÿad9 refers to Kôÿîa, son of Devakï, as a disciple of Ghora Aõgirasa who instructed him about Tapas (austerity), Däna (charity), Ärjava (simplicity or piety), Ahiãsä (non-injury) and Satyaväcana (truthfulness) – virtues which are extolled by Kôÿîa in the Gïtä. As Jaina tradition makes Väsüdeva-Kôÿîa a contemporary of Tïrthaõkara Ariÿûanemi who preceded Pärávanätha, some scholars identify Ghora Äõgirasa with Neminätha. Neminätha is also known to have instructed Árïkôÿîa.
The age when Väsudeva-Kôÿîa flourished cannot be determined with certainty. The Chändogya Upaniÿad (the sixth or seventh century B.C.) refers to Vasudeva Kôÿîa. The Mahäbhärata war, in which Kôÿîa is known to have participated, was, according to H.C. Ray Chaudhuri, fought either in the 14th century B.C. or in the 9th century B.C.10
Jainism as a Pre-Vedic Religion
It has been pointed out by some scholars that Jainism is a pre-Vedic religion. G.C. Pandey11 has tried to show that the anti-ritualistic tendency, within the Vedic fold, is itself due to the impact of an asceticism which antedates the Vedäs. Jainism represents a continuation of this pre-Vedic stream. Some of the relics,12 recovered from the excavations at Mohenjo-däro and Harappä, are related to Áramaîa or Jaina tradition. The nude images in Käyotsarga i.e., the standing posture lost in meditation, closely resemble the Jaina images of the Kuÿäîa period. Käyotsarga is generally supposed to belong to the Jaina tradition. There are some idols even in Padmäsana pose. A few others, found at Mohenjo-däro, have hoods of serpents. They probably belonged to pre-Vedic Näga tribe. The image of the seventh Tïrthaõkara, Supäráva, has a canopy of serpent-hoods.
Even after the destruction of the Indus civilization, the straggling culture of the Áramaîas, most probably going back to pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan times, continued even during the Vedic period as is indicated by some such terms as Vätaraáana, Muni, Yati, Áramaîa, Keáï, Vrätya, Arhan and Áiánadeva. The Keáï Sükta of the Ôgveda delineates the strange figure of the Muni who is described as long-haired, clad in dirty, tawny-coloured garments, walking in the air, drinking poison, delirious with Mauneya and inspired. There can hardly be any doubt that the Muni was to the Ôgvedic Culture an alien figure. The Taittiriya–Äraîyaka13 speaks of Áramaîas who were called Vätraáanäê. They led a celibate life and teach Brähmaîas the way beyond sin.
The word Áramaîa occurs in the Upaniÿads,14 although the Muîâakopaniÿad has various references to the shaven-headed ascetics who revile the Vedas. All the passages of Vedic literature,15 taken together, suggest that the Yatïs were the people who had incurred the hostility of Indra, the patron of the Äryas, and whose bodies were, therefore, thrown to the wolves.
The Pañcaviãáa Brähmaîa16 describes some peculiarities of the Vrätyas. They did not study the Vedas; they did not observe the rules regulating the Brähmanical order of life. They called an expression difficult to pronounce when it was not difficult to pronounce at all and spoke the tongue of the consecrated though they themselves were not consecrated. This proves that they had some Präkôtik form of speech. The Präkôta language is especially the language of the canonical works of the Jainas. K.P. Jayaswal17 states that they had traditions of the Jainas current among them.
In the Ôgveda,18 Arhan has been used for a Áramaîa leader : ‘Oh Arhaî, you fed compassion for this useless world.’ The mention of Áiánadevas (naked gods) in the Ôgveda19 is also noteworthy.
PÄrÁvanÄtha as an Historical Figure
H. Jacobi20 and others have proved on the authority of both the Jaina and the Buddhist records that Päráva was an historical personage. Their arguments are as follows :–
1. In the Buddhist scriptures, there is a reference to the four vows (Cäturyäma Dharma) of Päráva in contra-distinction to the five vows of Mahävïra. The Buddhists could not have used the term Cäturyäma Dharma for the Nirgranthas unless they had heard it from the followers of Päráva. This proves the correctness of the Jaina tradition that the followers of Päráva, in fact, existed at the time of Mahävira.
2. The Nirgranthas were an important sect at the time of the rise of Buddhism, as may be inferred from the fact that they are frequently mentioned in the Piûakas as opponents of Buddha and his disciples. This is further supported by another fact. Maõkhali Goáäla, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahävïra, divided mankind into six classes, and of these, the third class contained the Nirgranthas. Goáäla, probably, would not have ranked them as a separate class of mankind if they had recently come into existence. He must have regarded them as members of a very important and at the same time an old sect.
3. The Majjhima Nikäya records a dispute between Buddha and Sakdäl, the son of a Nirgrantha. Sakdäl was not himself a Nirgrantha. Now, when a famous controversialist, whose father was a Nirgrantha, was a contemporary of Buddha, the Nirgrantha sect could scarcely have been founded during Buddha's life-time.
4. The existence of Päráva's Order in Mahävïra's time is proved by the reported disputes between the followers of Päráva and those of Mahävira. The followers of Päráva, who did not fully recognize Mahävïra as their spiritual guide, existed during Mahävïra's life-time. A sort of compromise has been effected between the two sections of the Jaina Saãgha.
These arguments clearly show that Pärávanätha was a real historical figure. Very few facts of his life are, however, known. The Kalpasütra informs us that Päráva was the son of king Aávasena of Väräîasï (Banaras) and queen Vämä, belonging to the Ikÿväkü race of the Kÿatriyas.
Many legends have gathered round Päráva. Throughout his life, he was connected with ‘snakes’ in one way or the other. In his childhood, for instance, while he lay by the side of his mother, a serpent was seen crawling about. When he grew up, he saved a serpent from the grave danger it was in. He also saved a poor terrified snake which had taken shelter in a log of wood to which a Brähmaîa ascetic, Kamaûha, had set fire. After its death, the snake became God Dharaîendra who spread a serpent's hood over Päráva.
According to Svetambaras, Päráva was married to Prabhävatï, the daughter of Prasenajit the king of Kuáasthala. But according to Digambaras, Päráva was unmarried. He must have been a man of genial nature, as he is always given the epithet Puriÿädänïya,21 'beloved of men'. He lived for thirty years in great splendour and happiness as a householder, and then, forsaking all his wealth, became an ascetic. After 84 days of intense meditation, he attained the perfect knowledge of a Tïrthaõkara, and from that time, he lived for about seventy years in the state of most exalted perfection and sainthood. At last, he attained Nirväîa22 (liberation) in 777 B.C. on the summit of Mount Sammedaáikhara, now named Pärávanätha hill after him.
A man of practical nature, Päráva was remarkable for his organizing capacity. He organized the Saãgha (Organization) efficiently for the propagation of Jainism. He had eight Gaîas and eight Gaîadharas, namely, Subha and Äryaghoÿa, Vaáiÿûha and Brahmacärin, Saumya and Áridhara, Vïrabhadra and Yaáas. He had an excellent community of 16,000 Áramaîas with Äryadatta at their head; 38,000 nuns with Puÿpacülä at their head; 1,64,000 lay votaries with Sunandä at their head;23 350 sages who knew the four Pürvas; 1,400 sages who were possessed of the Avadhi knowledge; 1,000 male and 2,000 female disciples who had reached perfection; 750 sages, each gifted with mighty intellect; 600 professors and 1,200 sages in their last birth.24 Here the Digambara texts differ. According to them, there were ten Gaîas and ten Gaîadharas among whom Svayambhü was the chief disciple. They also differ in giving the number of nuns, laymen and female lay votaries which, acording to them, was twentysix thousand, one lac and three lacs respectively. He is said to have visited many cities for the dissemination of Jainism, the most important of which are Ahichatra, Amalakappä, Áävatthi, Kampillapura, Sägeya, Räyagiha, and Kosambï.
According to the Jaina tradition, the sacred literature descending from the time of Päráva was known as Puvvas (Pürvas). These 'Earlier' compositions were called Puvvas (Pürvas) evidently because they existed prior to the Aõgas. They are said to have formed a common basis of Jaina & Äjivika canon. It is from these Pürvas that Goáäla Maõkhaliputta, the leader of the Äjivikas drew inspiration. It is said that Äjivika canon, consisting of eight Mahänimittas and two Märgas, was atleast partially based upon these Pürvas.25
The fourteen Pürvas were recognized as constituting a twelfth Aõga called Dôÿûiväda. The knowledge of the fourteen Pürvas remained up to Sthülabhadra, the eighth patriarch after Mahävïra. For some time, only ten Pürvas were known and then the remaining Pürvas were gradually lost. Dr. H.L. Jain thinks that in the Ÿaûkhaîâägama of Puÿpadanta and Bhütabali, we have not only an important canonical book of the Digambaras but also a later representation of the Dôÿûiväda which contained some portion of the original fourteen Pürvas.26
The Jainä Sütras and the early Buddhist texts enlighten us about the doctrines and followers of Päráva. The religious order founded by him was reputed for a high and rigid standard of conduct. He made four moral precepts binding upon his followers, precepts which were later enforced by Mahävïra and Buddha upon their followers. His rules were not confined only to these four precepts but they embraced many other rules laid down for the practical guidance of the fraternity and laity. All the fundamental rules of the Nigaîûha community were due to Päráva and his followers. B.M. Barua27 points out that Päráva, the philosophic predecessor of Mahävïra, had rules of conduct which demanded a philosophic justification in order that they might not appear arbitrary or be confused with social conventions.
The Uttarädhyayana Sütra fürnishes a dialogue which sheds abundant light on this obscure point. The interlocutors are the two leading representatives of the Nigaîûha Order of the time. Keáï, a follower of Päráva's rule, asks Gautama, who was one of the chief disciples of Mahävïra: "When the four precepts promulgated by the great sage Päráva are equally binding upon the two orders, what is the cause of difference between us?" "Wisdom" replies Gautama, "recoginzes the truth of the law and the ascertainment of true things. The earlier saints were simple but slow of understanding, the last saints, prevaricating and slow of understanding, those between the two, simple and wise; hence there are two forms of the Law. The first could only with difficulty understand the precepts of the Law, and the last could only with difficulty observe them, but those between them easily understood and observed them,"28
About the teachings of Päráva, it must be admitted, we have no exact knowledge. His religion was, however, meant for one and all without any distinction of caste or creed. He allowed women to enter his Order. He laid stress on the doctrine of Ahiãsä. According to him, strict asceticism was the only way to attain salvation. Fundamentally, the doctrines of Päráva and Mahävïra were the same. Päráva preached four vows instead of five. According to H. Jacobi, the Order of Päráva seems to have undergone some changes in the period between the Nirväna of Päráva and the advent of Mahävïra.
Päráva enjoined on his followers four great vows : (1) Abstinence from killing living beings; (2) Avoidance of falsehood; (3) Avoidance of theft, and (4) Freedom from possessions. H. Jacobi29 has clearly perceived that a doctrine attributed to Mahävïra in the Buddhist Sämaññaphala Sutta properly belonged to his predecessor, Päráva, insofar as the expression Cäturyäma Saãvara is concerned. The doctrine is that, according to Mahävïra, the way to self-possession, self-command, and imperturbability consists of 'a four-fold self-restraint', such as restraint in regard to all things, restraint in regard to all evil, and restraints imposed for the purification of sin and feeling a sense of ease on that account.30
The Jaina writers tell us that Nagnajit, king of Gandhära, Nami, king of Videha, Durmukha, King of Pañcäla, Bhïma, king of Vidarbha, and Karakaîâu, king of Kaliõga adopted the faith of the Jainas.31 As Päráva (877-777 B.C.) was probably the first historical Jina, these rulers, (if they really became converts to his doctrines), have to be placed between 842 B.C. and 600 B.C.. They are known to have ruled over their respective kingdoms before the sixth century B.C.
Päráva had a large number of followers around Magadha even in the days of Mahävïra. Mahävïra's parents, who belonged to the Jñätrï-Kshatriyas, were worshippers of Päráva.32 Following the teachings of Päráva, they peacefully died practising slow starvation Sallekhanä. The Uttarädhyayana Sütra33 relates a meeting between Keáï and Gautama as representatives of the two Jaina Orders, the old and the new. The Bhagavatï Sütra34 refers to a dispute between Käläsavesiyaputta, a follower of Päráva, and a disciple of Mahävïra. The Näyäddhammakahäo35 says that Käli, an old maiden joined Päráva's order and was entrusted to Pupphacülä, the head of the nuns.The two sisters of Uppalä joined the order of Päráva, but being unable to lead the rigid life of the order, they became Brähmin Parivräjikäs (female wanderers). Municanda, a follower of Päráva, lived in a potter's shop in Kumäräya-Sanniveÿa in the company of his disciples. Vijayä and Pagabbhä, two female disciples of Päráva, served Mahävïra and Goáäla in Küviya-Sanniveÿa.36 The Bhagavatï Sütra37 refers to Gäõgeya, a follower of Päráva in Väîiyagäma. He gave up the four vows of Päráva and adopted the five Mahävratas of Mahävïra. The Näyädhammakahäo38 mentions Puîâariya who accepted the four vows of Päráva. The followers of Päráva moved in the company of five hundred monks into the city of Tuõgiya.39 A number of laywomen joined Päráva's Order.40 The Räyapaseîaiyasüya41 refers to a follower of Päráva named Keáï who visited Seyaviyä where a discussion between him and Paesï took place regarding the identity of the soul and body. A follower of Päráva named Udaka met Gautama, the first Gaîadhara of Mahävïra. Gautama was successful in winning over Udaka to his side.42 From the dialogue between Udaka and Gautama, it appears that the followers of Päráva and the disciples of Mahävïra were respectively known as the Nigaîûha Kumäraputtas and the Nigaîûha Näthaputtas.
References :
1. H. Zimmer : Philosophies of India, pp. 217-227;
J.G.R. Forlong : Short Studies in the Science of Comparative Religions, pp. 243-244;
Psob : p. 260;
Tulsi : Pre-Vedic Existence of Áramaîa Tradition.
2. SBE, XLV, pp. xx-xxiii.
3. Jyoti Prasad Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jainas.
4. RV, X, 11.139.2-3.
5. Taitt. Ar, 2.7.1, p. 137.
6. RV, X, 11, 136-1.
7. Ibid., X, 9, 102-6.
8. Bhägavata, V, 3, 20.
9. Chänd, III, 17, 6
10. Phal, pp. 31-36.
11. Psob, pp. 317, 258
12. Moh. Ind, plate xii, Figs. 13, 14, 15, 19, 22.
13. Taitt. Är, I. pp. 87, 137-8.
14. Bô. Up. 4. 3. 22.
15. Taitt. Sam, VI, 2, 75; Käûhaka Saãhitä, VIII, 5; Ait. Br. 35. 2; Kau Up, III. 1; AV, II, 53, Täîâya Mahä-Brähmaîa, VIII, 1-4.
16. Pañca. Br, XVII, 4, 1-9.
17. Jbors, XIV, p. 26.
18. RV, II, 33, 10.
19. Ibid., VII, 21, 5; x, 99, 3.
20. Sbe, XLV, pp. xx-xxiii.
21. Kalpa, 149, 155.
22. Kalpa, 168-169.
23. Ibid., 160-164.
24. Ibid., 166.
25. B.M. Barua interprets the word Puvva in the text not in the specialised Jaina sense, but merely as "past traditions". (See JDL, II, p. 41). His view is perhaps strengthened by the fact that the eightfold Mahäîimitta of the Äjivikas bears no resemblance to the titles of the fourteen lost Purvas of the Jaina tradition.
26. Sama, 147 fol. 128. Utpäda-pürva, Ägräyaîïya-pürva, Viryänuväda-pürva, Astinasti-praväda-pürva, Jñäna-praväda-pürva, Satya-praväda-pürva, Ätmapraväda-pürva, Karma-praväda-pürva, Pratyä-khyänanämadheya-pürva, Vidyänuväda-pürva, Kalyäîanämadheya-pürva, Präîäväya-pürva, Kriyäviáäla-pürva, and Lokabindusära-pürva.
27. Bhpip, p. 380.
28. Sbe, XLV, pp. 122-123.
29. Sbe, XLV, pp. xix-xxii.
30. Dia, II, pp. 74-75.
31. Sbe, XLV. p. 87.
32. Äcä, II, 15-16.
33. Uttarä, 23, pp. 119-129.
34. Bhag, I, 76.
35. Näyä, II. i; p. 222 ff.
36. Äva, cü, p. 291.
37. Bhag, IX. 32
38. Näyä, 19, p. 218.
39. Bhag, 2-5.
40. Näyä, II, 10.
41. Räya, 147 ff.
42. Sütra, II 7.
Apr 28, 2008
Historical Background Of Mahavira
Shri S.K. Bhandari
Mahavira was born in Kundapura near Vaishali. The traditional Jaina date for Mahavira's birth is 599 BC, but comparison with the life of Buddha and the Magadha kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru indicate that his death at the age of 72 was probably about 490 BC. An elaborate legend is told in the Acharanga Sutra and in the Kalpa Sutra how he was conceived in the womb of the Brahman Devananda, who had fourteen prophetic dreams but then after three lunar cycles divinely transferred to the womb of the Kshatriya Trishala, who also had the same fourteen prophetic dreams. These fourteen dreams are supposed to indicate that the child will become either an emperor or a great Tirthankara (prophet). This unbelievable story probably resulted from the Jaina tradition that all the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas, perhaps converting his stepmother into a second mother.
The father of Mahavira was King Siddartha; he and Trishala were both pious and virtuous followers of Parshva. Trishala was the sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali, the capital of a federation where the Jainism of Parshva was popular. King Chetaka had seven daughters, one of whom was initiated into the Jaina order of ascetics while the other six married famous kings including King Shrenika (Bimbisara) of Magadha and Mahavira's own brother, Nandivardhana.Since the wealth of his father's kingdom had increased during the pregnancy, the child was called Vardhamana. He was raised in princely opulence and showed his courage as a child by mounting a charging elephant by the trunk and on another occasion picking up a large snake and casting it aside. For his courage and self-control in enduring the rules of penance, Vardhamana was given the name Mahavira which means great hero. Jaina comes from jina meaning victor or conqueror. He probably received the usual education for an aristocrat in philosophy, literature, military and administrative sciences, and the arts.
Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda, and they had a daughter, Anojja. She eventually married his nephew Jamali, who later caused a schism in the order. When Mahavira was 28 years old both his parents died. He wanted to renounce the world, but to please his elder brother he agreed to live at home for two more years during which he practiced self-discipline, giving up all luxuries and giving charity to beggars every day of the last year.At the age of thirty Mahavira renounced all his wealth, property, wife, family, relatives, and pleasures. In a garden of the village Kundapura at the foot of an Ashoka tree, no one else being present, after fasting two days without water he took off all his clothes, tore out the hair of his head in five handfuls, and put a single cloth on his shoulder. He vowed to neglect his body and with equanimity to suffer all calamities arising from divine powers, people, or animals. Having already attained before marriage the first three levels of knowledge (knowledge from the senses and mind, knowledge from study, and knowledge from intuition), at this initiation it was said he attained the fourth level of knowledge that includes the psychological movements of all sentient beings.
Thus Mahavira became homeless. As he was leaving the garden, a Brahman beggar, who had missed out on the last year of Mahavira's almsgiving, asked him for alms; he gave him half of the garment on his shoulder. After thirteen months he gave up clothes altogether.Neglecting his body, the venerable ascetic Mahavira meditated on his self, in blameless lodgings and wandering, in restraint, kindness, avoidance of sinful influence, chaste life, in patience, freedom from passion, contentment; practicing control, circumspectness, religious postures and acts; walking the path of nirvana and liberation, which is the fruit of good conduct.Living thus he with equanimity bore, endured, sustained, and suffered all calamities arising from divine powers, men, and animals, with undisturbed and unafflicted mind, careful of body, speech, and mind.
After a few months of wandering Mahavira went to an ashram in Moraga, where he was invited to spend the four-month rainy season by its abbot who was a friend of his father. Mahavira was assigned a hut with a thatched roof. The previous summer had been so hot that the grass in the forest was destroyed, and the cattle ran to eat the ascetics' grass huts. The other ascetics beat off the cattle, but Mahavira just let the cattle eat the thatched roof. The ascetics complained to the abbot, and so Mahavira decided to leave the ashram and spent the rainy season in the village of Ashtika.
Reflecting upon this experience Mahavira resolved to follow the fivefold discipline of never living in the house of an unfriendly person, usually standing with the body like a statue (kayostarga), generally maintaining silence, eating out of his hand as a dish, and not showing politeness to householders. Thus he practiced meditation and severe austerities. In the summer he would meditate in the sun or walk through sun-baked fields, and in winter he would meditate naked in the open air. Each year during the rainy season he stayed in one place. He walked quietly, carefully keeping his eyes on the ground so as to avoid stepping on any insects. He stayed in deserted houses, crematoriums, gardens, or any solitary place.What little food he ate he got from begging. If he saw any other beggar, animal or bird waiting for food at a house he would silently pass by to another house. He fasted for fifteen days at a time and up to a month. He passed the second rainy season at Nalanda, where he met Gosala, who was impressed by Mahavira and joined him. Traveling with Gosala his fasts now extended as long as two months. According to Jaina biographies of Mahavira, Gosala often insulted others and misbehaved, while Mahavira remained silent and still (in kayostarga). This brought upon them abusive behavior.
In Choraga of Bengal they were taken for spies and imprisoned. Another time they were both tied up and beaten. In Kuiya they were once again imprisoned as spies, but were released at the behest of two sisters. In the sixth year Gosala left Mahavira for six months; but he returned until the tenth year when he left Mahavira and proclaimed himself a prophet and leader of the Ajivika sect. Mahavira went to Vaishali where the republican chief Sankha rescued him from trouble caused by local children. In the eleventh year Mahavira was tested by a god named Samgamaka, who gave him terrible physical pain, accompanied him begging, and contaminated his food. Mahavira gave up begging and sat in meditation. For six months Samgamaka inflicted tortures on him, but unable to disturb him he finally fell at his feet and begged his forgiveness before returning to his own place. Government officials in Tosali took Mahavira for a thief and tried to hang him, but he was rescued in time.
In the twelfth year Mahavira took a vow that he would fast until an enslaved princess with a shaven head and fettered feet, in tears and tired after three days fasting, would lean out a window and offer him boiled pulse. It was five months and twenty-five days before such an event occurred in Champa. While in this town a Brahman questioned him about the soul and its characteristics. Mahavira explained that what one understands by the word "I" is the soul.In Chammani a bull strayed while grazing, and a cowherd asked Mahavira about it. Met with silence the cowherd became enraged and pushed grass sticks into Mahavira's ears. Remaining peaceful and undisturbed, Mahavira continued his wanderings until eventually a physician noticed the condition, removed the painful plugs from his ears, and cured the wound with medicine. Seeking the highest enlightenment Mahavira meditated for six months sitting motionless, but he failed. He did penance in a cemetery when Rudra and his wife tried to interrupt him.Finally in the thirteenth year of this ascetic life while meditating after two and a half days of waterless fasting Mahavira attained nirvana and the highest awareness called kevala or absolute knowledge. The first message of Mahavira after his enlightenment is recorded in the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya:I am all-knowing and all-seeing, and possessed of an infinite knowledge.Whether I am walking or standing still, whether I sleep or remain awake, the supreme knowledge and intuition are present with me---constantly and continuously.There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful acts you have done in the past, which you must now wear out by this acute form of austerity.Now that here you will be living restrained in regard to your acts, speech and thought,it will work as the nondoing of karma for future.Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds through penance and the non-accumulation of new acts, (you are assured) of the stoppage of the future course, of rebirth from such stoppage,of the destruction of the effect of karma, from that, of the destruction of pain, from that, of the destruction of mental feelings, and from that, of the complete wearing out of all kinds of pain.
After attaining omniscience Mahavira attended a religious conference by the river Ijjuvaliya, but his first discourse had little effect. Then he traveled to another conference in the garden of Mahasena, where in a long discussion he converted eleven learned Brahmans who had gone there to sacrifice. Breaking the tradition of speaking in Sanskrit, Mahavira spoke in the Ardhamagadhi dialect, and all the Jaina Agama scriptures are written in Ardhamagadhi.
Hearing of a magician the Brahman Indrabhuti Gautama went to expose him; but as he approached the garden, Mahavira called him by name and reading his mind said, "Gautama, you have a doubt in your mind about the existence of the soul." Then Mahavira explained how to interpret a passage in the Vedas so as to understand that, although categories of knowledge may disappear, this does not affect the existence of the soul. This mind-reading and wisdom convinced Indrabhuti of the omniscience of Mahavira. After hearing Mahavira's discourse on his essential teachings, Indrabhuti decided to renounce the world and was initiated by Mahavira into the religion.
Having heard of his brother's defeat by Mahavira, Agnibhuti Gautama came to debate with Mahavira, but he too, won over by Mahavira's explanation of the reality of karma and the soul's bondage to it, also became initiated. According to tradition nine more scholars argued with Mahavira and were converted, becoming his eleven disciples. Jaina tradition also claims that these eleven brought along 4400 of their pupils into the new faith.
Then Mahavira wandered in silence for sixty-six days until he reached Rajagriha, the capital of the powerful state Magadha. King Shrenika (Bimbisara) and his family attended, and he received satisfactory answers to his questions. Indrabhuti was quite learned and vain, but when an old man came to him for an explanation of a sloka Mahavira had quoted before becoming lost in meditation, Indrabhuti could not explain it. When Mahavira explained it, all of Indrabhuti's pride fell away in the presence of the great ascetic.
Mahavira organized his order into four groups of monks, nuns, male householders, and female householders. All those initiated had to take the five vows, which included the four vows of Parshva (nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, and non-possession) plus chastity. After spending the rainy season at Rajagriha, Mahavira went to Vaishali, where he initiated his daughter and son-in-law Jamali and spent the next year's monsoon season. Perceiving telepathically that the king of Sindhu-sauvira wanted to meet him, Mahavira traveled there and initiated King Rudrayana into the religion of the Shramanas. Returning from this long journey through the desert of Sindhu, they suffered from lack of food and water but remained indifferent. At Benares a multi-millionaire and his wife were converted. Spending two more rainy seasons in Rajagriha twenty-five of King Shrenika's sons were initiated into the Shramana community. It was recorded that Ardraka Kumara, a non-Aryan prince, who knew his past births, traveled to Mahavira to join his order and on his way defeated in argument Gosala, Vedic Brahmans, and other ascetics.
At Kaushambi Mahavira converted King Prodyota and several queens, who were admitted into the order of nuns. After spending a rainy season at Vaishali he went back to Rajagriha, where he converted many followers of Parshva's religion who adopted the fifth vow of the Shramana community as well. Later he convinced Keshi Kumara, the leader of the Parshva religion, that he was the 24th Tirthankara, and Keshi brought his disciples into the new order. A few years later his son-in-law Jamali left the Shramana order with his disciples to form the Vahurata sect; but it was not successful, and most of his disciples returned to Mahavira's order.
A dispute arose when Mahavira said that Gosala was not omniscient. Hearing of it and approaching Mahavira, Gosala tried to explain to him that he was no longer his disciple, because he was a different soul, who had entered Gosala's body and founded a new religion. Mahavira asked why he was vainly trying to conceal his identity. The irate Gosala swore at him and abused two of the Jaina monks, according to tradition destroying them, although Mahavira had warned them not to argue with Gosala. However, the negative energy that Gosala aimed at Mahavira returned to himself. He said that he would cause Mahavira to die of a fever in six months. Mahavira replied that he would live on, but that Gosala would be struck by his own magical power and die from fever in seven days, which came to pass. Mahavira outlived Gosala by sixteen years, but the Ajivika sect Gosala founded lasted for many centuries.
When Kunika (Ajatashatru) forcibly took over his father's kingdom of Magadha, he moved the capital to Champa, where many princes and townspeople adopted Mahavira's religion. Although Ajatashatru liked to listen to Mahavira, it did not stop him from gathering a large army and allies to attack and defeat the Vaishali confederacy in a major war that killed King Chetaka.Finally at the age of 72 Mahavira left his body and attained nirvana, liberated and rid of all karma, never to return again. His first disciple, Indrabuhti Gautama, died also at dawn the next morning.Jainism
According to Jaina tradition nine of the eleven disciples attained the highest knowledge of kevala during Mahavira's lifetime, usually many years before their nirvana and final death. Indrabhuti Gautama, the first disciple, attained kevala and nirvana the same night Mahavira died. The other disciple, Sudharma, became the leader of the Nirgrantha community (Nirgrantha means unfettered ones.) and attained kevala knowledge after twelve more years and died eight years later at the age of one hundred. Thus Sudharma led the Order (Samgha) for twenty years and was succeeded by Arya Jambu Swamy, who had been initiated at the age of 16, attained kevala knowledge twenty years later, and directed the community until his nirvana death when he was 80. According to Jaina tradition he is the last person to have attained omniscience and nirvana.The essential metaphysical ideas of Jainism are nine cardinal principles. The universe is divided into that which is alive and conscious (jiva) and matter which is not (ajiva). Jivas (souls) are either caught by karma (action) in the world of reincarnation (samsara) or liberated (mukta) and perfected (siddha). Though their number is infinite, jivas are individuals and each potentially infinite in awareness, power, and bliss. Matter (ajiva) is made up of eternal atoms in time and space which can be moved and stopped. The other seven principles explain the workings of karma and the soul's liberation from it. The soul (jiva) is attracted to sense-objects by the principle of ashrava which leads to the bondage (bandha) of the soul by karma, which covers up and limits the soul's natural abilities to know and perceive in its blissful state, resulting in delusions and a succession of births. The next two principles are virtue (punya) and vice (papa) by which all karma either works beneficially toward liberation or negatively toward bondage.
The seventh principle samvara is how the soul prevents ashrava (the influx of karma) by watchfulness and self-discipline of mind, speech, and body. This eventually leads to nirjara, the elimination of karma. Finally moksha or liberation is attained. In one's last life at death, nirvana (literally "being extinguished") describes the end of worldly existence for the soul, which then rises to the highest heaven.
Although Jainas believe that souls may have some lives as gods and goddesses in heavenly worlds or suffer in hell and become demon-like, there is no total God lifting up souls or punishing them in hell. Rather each individual jiva is responsible for itself and completely determines its own destiny, although these jivas do have the divine attributes of infinite knowledge, power, and bliss. This doctrine of individual responsibility makes Jainism a primarily ethical religion, as does the severity of their five vows of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.Ahimsa (nonviolence) means not injuring any living thing in any way, and the Jainas took it very seriously. Injuring an animal or causing anyone to do so was considered a sin. This meant walking carefully so as not to injure even the tiniest creatures. The mind had to be watched to prevent thoughts and intentions that might lead to quarrels, faults, pain, or any kind of injury. Similarly one's speech had to be carefully monitored. The Jaina must be careful in laying down their begging utensils so as not to hurt a living being, and food and water must be carefully inspected to make sure no living things are hurt or displaced.
As with nonviolence one must not speak any lies nor cause any lies to be spoken nor consent to any lies being spoken. Thus the Nirgrantha (Jaina) speaks only after deliberation and renounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth so that no falsehoods will be uttered. This vow combined with nonhurting (ahimsa) meant that speech must be pleasant and not painful or insulting in any way. Silence as a discipline was observed most of the time.Non-stealing means that nothing must be taken that is not freely given. Thus the Nirgrantha begs only after deliberation and according to strict rules, consumes food and drink only after permission is granted, occupies only limited ground for short periods of time, continually renewing the grant to be there.
Chastity is the renunciation of all sensual pleasures. To achieve this discipline monks do not discuss women nor contemplate their lovely forms nor recall previously enjoyed pleasures nor occupy a bed or couch used by women, animals, or eunuchs. A Nirgrantha does not eat and drink too much nor drink liquor nor eat highly seasoned food. Finally all attachments must be renounced, even to the delight in agreeable sounds or being disturbed by disagreeable ones. Similarly with all the five senses, one may not be able to avoid all experiences, but one is not to be attached to the agreeable ones, for those who acquiesce and indulge in worldly pleasures are born again and again. By these disciplines the wise avoid wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, hate, delusion, conception, birth, death, hell, animal existence, and pain.
In order to find liberation four things must be attained: human birth, instruction in the teachings, belief in them, and energy in self-control. This meant freeing oneself from family bonds, giving up acts and attachments, and living self-controlled towards the eternal. Collecting alms one may be insulted and despised, but the wise with undisturbed mind sustains their insults and blows, like an elephant in battle with arrows, and is not shaken any more than a rock is by the wind. The sage lives detached from pleasure and pain, not hurting and not killing; bearing all, one's luster increases like a burning flame as one conquers desires and meditates on the supremacy of virtue, though suffering pain.
The great vows, which are a place of peace, the great teachers, and the producers of detachment have been proclaimed by the infinite victor (Jina), the knowing one, as light illuminating the three worlds (earth, heaven, and hell). The unfettered one living among the bound should be a beggar, unattached to women, and speak with reverence, not desiring this or the next world. The dirt of former sins committed by a liberated mendicant walking in wisdom who is constant and bears pain vanishes like the tarnish from silver in the fire. Free from desire with conquered sensuality, one is freed from the bed of pain like a snake casts off its skin. Renouncing the world the sage is called "the maker of the end," for that one has quit the path of births.
The soul cannot be apprehended by the senses, because it possesses no corporeal form and thus is eternal. The fetters on the soul are caused by bad qualities, which cause worldly existence. The golden rule is a part of the Jaina teachings and is extended to all living beings:
"Having mastered the teachings and got rid of carelessness, one should live on allowed food,and treat all beings as one oneself would be treated; one should not expose oneself to guiltby one's desire for life; a monk who performs austerities should not keep any store."
Once a disciple of Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, asked Gautama why Mahavira taught five vows instead of four. Earlier chastity was practiced as part of non-possession or detachment, but Keshi also explained that the first saints were simple and slow of understanding; they could practice the teachings better than they could understand them. The last saints were prevaricating and slow of understanding; though they might understand them, they had difficulty practicing them. Those in between were simple and wise; they easily understood and practiced them.The three gems of Jainism are right attitude, right knowledge, and right conduct. The right attitude takes an unbiased approach, believes in the nine essential principles, and uses discriminating perception. Right knowledge proceeds through the five stages of sense perception, study, intuition, clairvoyance, and omniscience (kevala). Right conduct or character comes from self-discipline, renunciation, and pure conduct in practicing the five major vows. The rationale for self-discipline is explained in the Uttaradhyayana.
Subdue yourself, for the self is difficult to subdue; if your self is subdued, you will be happy in this world and the next.Better it is that I should subdue myself by self-control and penance, than be subdued by otherswith fetters and corporal punishment.
The rules for walking, sitting, begging for food, and evacuating one's bowels were very strict. In order to avoid causing anyone else even to do injury in preparing food, for example, monks must not accept food that is especially prepared for them. The monk must not encourage a lay person to give alms by playing with their children, giving information, praising charity, declaring one's family, expatiating on one's misery, curing the sick, threatening, showing one's learning, and so on.Attending a sacrifice performed by a Brahman, a sage named Jayaghosha explained that a true Brahman is one who has no worldly attachment, who does not repent being a monk, who delights in noble words, who is exempt from love, hate, and fear, who subdues oneself and reaches nirvana, who thoroughly knows living beings and does not injure them, who speaks no untruth from anger or fun or greed or fear, who does not take anything that is not given, who does not love carnally divine, human, or animal beings in thought, words, or action, who is undefiled by pleasure as a lotus growing in water is unwetted, who is not greedy, lives unknown with no house or property or friendship with householders, who has given up former connections with relations, and who is not given to pleasure.
Showing that character and actions are more important to what one is than outward symbols or birth and color in regard to caste, Jayaghosha declared:
The binding of animals, all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being causes of sin, cannot save the sinner;for one's works are very powerful.One does not become a Shramana by the tonsure, nor a Brahman by the sacred syllable aum,nor a Muni by living in the woods, nor a Tapasa by wearing kusha-grass and bark.One becomes a Shramana by equanimity, a Brahman by chastity, a Muni by knowledge,and a Tapasa by penance.By one's actions one becomes a Brahman or a Kshatriya or a Vaisya or a Sudra.
Then Jayaghosha warned the Brahmin that there is a kind of glue in pleasure. Those who are not given to pleasure are not soiled by it, but those who love pleasures wander around in Samsara (reincarnation) and are not liberated. He said that if you take two clods of clay, one wet and one dry, and fling them against the wall, the wet one will stick to it. So the foolish are fastened to karma by their pleasures; but the dispassionate are not, just as the dry clay does not stick to the wall.Mahavira's theory of knowledge (syadvada) is relativistic and tentative to allow for the relativity of this world. Anything may be or not be or be indescribable or any combination of these to allow for various perspectives.
Mahavira taught 73 methods for exertion in goodness by which many creatures, who believed in and accepted them, studied, learned, understood, and practiced them, and acted according to them, obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all misery. Briefly they are: longing for liberation, disregard of worldly objects, faith in the law, obedience to other monks and the guru, confession of sins, repenting to oneself and the guru, moral purity, adoration of the 24 Jinas, expiation, meditating without moving the body, self-denial, praises and hymns, time discipline, penance, asking forgiveness, study, recitation, questioning, repetition, pondering, discourse, sacred knowledge, concentration, control, austerity, cutting off karma, renouncing pleasure, mental independence, using unfrequented lodgings, turning from the world, not collecting alms in only one district, renouncing useful articles, renouncing food, overcoming desires, renouncing activity and the body and company, final renunciation, conforming to the standard, doing service, fulfilling all virtues, freedom from passion, patience, freedom from greed, simplicity, humility, sincerity of mind and religious practice and action, watchfulness of mind and speech and body, discipline of mind and speech and body, possession of knowledge and faith and conduct, subduing the five senses, conquering anger and pride and deceit and greed and wrong belief, stability, and freedom from karma.
In disciplining the mind, speech, and body, Jainas often stood in one position for a long time. Meditation might focus on such thoughts as the impermanence of worldly things, human helplessness, transitory quality of human relations, aloneness, separateness of the conscious soul from the unconscious body, the impurity of the body, how attachment binds the soul by karma, how good thoughts may release the soul, how karma may be eliminated, the difficulty of attaining perfection, and how the teachings may save one.
Mahavira's travels spread Jainism to various parts of northern India, and later migrations of monks enabled the religion to take hold in most of India. A poetic work on the rules of behavior for monks by Arya Sayyambhava written about 400 BC expresses concern that an act might "undermine the prestige of the Jaina order."6 This lapse of humility, one of the main virtues emphasized in this work, does indicate that Jainism was very likely respected by many. The examples of these extremely conscientious ascetics surely must have had their affect on people wherever they went; and since they were homeless, they traveled constantly.
Though they seem to have argued over doctrinal differences, no major schism occurred in the religion until the first century CE, and that was only over whether monks ought to go naked or whether they could wear a garment. In evaluating the ethics of Jainism we must keep in mind that the ascetic monks and nuns were probably far outnumbered by the householders, who practiced a minor version of the five vows. The primary goal of those who have renounced the world is spiritual liberation (moksha) from the wheel of reincarnation (samsara). Thus their lives were essentially motivated by this intention of removing their souls from the world. Though they lived lightly on the earth, using as little of its resources as possible, they were still dependent on lay people for their meager survival needs. The complete focus on this other-worldly goal does seem to prevent them from contributing much to society except their example of self-discipline and possibly some teaching.
Yet the lay people who practiced Jainism while earning a living and providing for their families were contributing to society while doing their best not to harm others or any living creature. Thus they were vegetarians and, if true to the teachings, lived profoundly ethical lives. Although they provided examples of peace, Jainas often supported the wars that were common in ancient India. Their individual ethic somehow was not able to expand into a larger social ethic to convert society as a whole to the nonviolence they practiced as individuals.
The extremity of their ascetic disciplines seems to have disregarded personal pleasures and happiness so much that the religion never became as popular as Hinduism or Buddhism although it managed to persist in substantial numbers. Jainism has contributed a marvelous example of individual harmlessness to our world, and though it may not be a complete solution to all human problems, it provided a spiritual path for those seeking liberation and an outstanding model of self-discipline and reverence for all life.Notes:1. Acharanga Sutra tr. Hermann Jacobi, 2:15:24.2. Majjh. I, p. 92-93 quoted in Jain, K. C, Lord Mahavira and His Times, p. 56-57.3. Sutrakritanga tr. Hermann Jacobi, 1:10:3.4. Uttaradhyayana tr. Hermann Jacobi, 1:15-16.5. Ibid., 25:30-33.6. Sayyanmbhava, Arya, Dasa Vaikalika Sutra, 5B:12.
Mahavira was born in Kundapura near Vaishali. The traditional Jaina date for Mahavira's birth is 599 BC, but comparison with the life of Buddha and the Magadha kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru indicate that his death at the age of 72 was probably about 490 BC. An elaborate legend is told in the Acharanga Sutra and in the Kalpa Sutra how he was conceived in the womb of the Brahman Devananda, who had fourteen prophetic dreams but then after three lunar cycles divinely transferred to the womb of the Kshatriya Trishala, who also had the same fourteen prophetic dreams. These fourteen dreams are supposed to indicate that the child will become either an emperor or a great Tirthankara (prophet). This unbelievable story probably resulted from the Jaina tradition that all the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas, perhaps converting his stepmother into a second mother.
The father of Mahavira was King Siddartha; he and Trishala were both pious and virtuous followers of Parshva. Trishala was the sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali, the capital of a federation where the Jainism of Parshva was popular. King Chetaka had seven daughters, one of whom was initiated into the Jaina order of ascetics while the other six married famous kings including King Shrenika (Bimbisara) of Magadha and Mahavira's own brother, Nandivardhana.Since the wealth of his father's kingdom had increased during the pregnancy, the child was called Vardhamana. He was raised in princely opulence and showed his courage as a child by mounting a charging elephant by the trunk and on another occasion picking up a large snake and casting it aside. For his courage and self-control in enduring the rules of penance, Vardhamana was given the name Mahavira which means great hero. Jaina comes from jina meaning victor or conqueror. He probably received the usual education for an aristocrat in philosophy, literature, military and administrative sciences, and the arts.
Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda, and they had a daughter, Anojja. She eventually married his nephew Jamali, who later caused a schism in the order. When Mahavira was 28 years old both his parents died. He wanted to renounce the world, but to please his elder brother he agreed to live at home for two more years during which he practiced self-discipline, giving up all luxuries and giving charity to beggars every day of the last year.At the age of thirty Mahavira renounced all his wealth, property, wife, family, relatives, and pleasures. In a garden of the village Kundapura at the foot of an Ashoka tree, no one else being present, after fasting two days without water he took off all his clothes, tore out the hair of his head in five handfuls, and put a single cloth on his shoulder. He vowed to neglect his body and with equanimity to suffer all calamities arising from divine powers, people, or animals. Having already attained before marriage the first three levels of knowledge (knowledge from the senses and mind, knowledge from study, and knowledge from intuition), at this initiation it was said he attained the fourth level of knowledge that includes the psychological movements of all sentient beings.
Thus Mahavira became homeless. As he was leaving the garden, a Brahman beggar, who had missed out on the last year of Mahavira's almsgiving, asked him for alms; he gave him half of the garment on his shoulder. After thirteen months he gave up clothes altogether.Neglecting his body, the venerable ascetic Mahavira meditated on his self, in blameless lodgings and wandering, in restraint, kindness, avoidance of sinful influence, chaste life, in patience, freedom from passion, contentment; practicing control, circumspectness, religious postures and acts; walking the path of nirvana and liberation, which is the fruit of good conduct.Living thus he with equanimity bore, endured, sustained, and suffered all calamities arising from divine powers, men, and animals, with undisturbed and unafflicted mind, careful of body, speech, and mind.
After a few months of wandering Mahavira went to an ashram in Moraga, where he was invited to spend the four-month rainy season by its abbot who was a friend of his father. Mahavira was assigned a hut with a thatched roof. The previous summer had been so hot that the grass in the forest was destroyed, and the cattle ran to eat the ascetics' grass huts. The other ascetics beat off the cattle, but Mahavira just let the cattle eat the thatched roof. The ascetics complained to the abbot, and so Mahavira decided to leave the ashram and spent the rainy season in the village of Ashtika.
Reflecting upon this experience Mahavira resolved to follow the fivefold discipline of never living in the house of an unfriendly person, usually standing with the body like a statue (kayostarga), generally maintaining silence, eating out of his hand as a dish, and not showing politeness to householders. Thus he practiced meditation and severe austerities. In the summer he would meditate in the sun or walk through sun-baked fields, and in winter he would meditate naked in the open air. Each year during the rainy season he stayed in one place. He walked quietly, carefully keeping his eyes on the ground so as to avoid stepping on any insects. He stayed in deserted houses, crematoriums, gardens, or any solitary place.What little food he ate he got from begging. If he saw any other beggar, animal or bird waiting for food at a house he would silently pass by to another house. He fasted for fifteen days at a time and up to a month. He passed the second rainy season at Nalanda, where he met Gosala, who was impressed by Mahavira and joined him. Traveling with Gosala his fasts now extended as long as two months. According to Jaina biographies of Mahavira, Gosala often insulted others and misbehaved, while Mahavira remained silent and still (in kayostarga). This brought upon them abusive behavior.
In Choraga of Bengal they were taken for spies and imprisoned. Another time they were both tied up and beaten. In Kuiya they were once again imprisoned as spies, but were released at the behest of two sisters. In the sixth year Gosala left Mahavira for six months; but he returned until the tenth year when he left Mahavira and proclaimed himself a prophet and leader of the Ajivika sect. Mahavira went to Vaishali where the republican chief Sankha rescued him from trouble caused by local children. In the eleventh year Mahavira was tested by a god named Samgamaka, who gave him terrible physical pain, accompanied him begging, and contaminated his food. Mahavira gave up begging and sat in meditation. For six months Samgamaka inflicted tortures on him, but unable to disturb him he finally fell at his feet and begged his forgiveness before returning to his own place. Government officials in Tosali took Mahavira for a thief and tried to hang him, but he was rescued in time.
In the twelfth year Mahavira took a vow that he would fast until an enslaved princess with a shaven head and fettered feet, in tears and tired after three days fasting, would lean out a window and offer him boiled pulse. It was five months and twenty-five days before such an event occurred in Champa. While in this town a Brahman questioned him about the soul and its characteristics. Mahavira explained that what one understands by the word "I" is the soul.In Chammani a bull strayed while grazing, and a cowherd asked Mahavira about it. Met with silence the cowherd became enraged and pushed grass sticks into Mahavira's ears. Remaining peaceful and undisturbed, Mahavira continued his wanderings until eventually a physician noticed the condition, removed the painful plugs from his ears, and cured the wound with medicine. Seeking the highest enlightenment Mahavira meditated for six months sitting motionless, but he failed. He did penance in a cemetery when Rudra and his wife tried to interrupt him.Finally in the thirteenth year of this ascetic life while meditating after two and a half days of waterless fasting Mahavira attained nirvana and the highest awareness called kevala or absolute knowledge. The first message of Mahavira after his enlightenment is recorded in the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya:I am all-knowing and all-seeing, and possessed of an infinite knowledge.Whether I am walking or standing still, whether I sleep or remain awake, the supreme knowledge and intuition are present with me---constantly and continuously.There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful acts you have done in the past, which you must now wear out by this acute form of austerity.Now that here you will be living restrained in regard to your acts, speech and thought,it will work as the nondoing of karma for future.Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds through penance and the non-accumulation of new acts, (you are assured) of the stoppage of the future course, of rebirth from such stoppage,of the destruction of the effect of karma, from that, of the destruction of pain, from that, of the destruction of mental feelings, and from that, of the complete wearing out of all kinds of pain.
After attaining omniscience Mahavira attended a religious conference by the river Ijjuvaliya, but his first discourse had little effect. Then he traveled to another conference in the garden of Mahasena, where in a long discussion he converted eleven learned Brahmans who had gone there to sacrifice. Breaking the tradition of speaking in Sanskrit, Mahavira spoke in the Ardhamagadhi dialect, and all the Jaina Agama scriptures are written in Ardhamagadhi.
Hearing of a magician the Brahman Indrabhuti Gautama went to expose him; but as he approached the garden, Mahavira called him by name and reading his mind said, "Gautama, you have a doubt in your mind about the existence of the soul." Then Mahavira explained how to interpret a passage in the Vedas so as to understand that, although categories of knowledge may disappear, this does not affect the existence of the soul. This mind-reading and wisdom convinced Indrabhuti of the omniscience of Mahavira. After hearing Mahavira's discourse on his essential teachings, Indrabhuti decided to renounce the world and was initiated by Mahavira into the religion.
Having heard of his brother's defeat by Mahavira, Agnibhuti Gautama came to debate with Mahavira, but he too, won over by Mahavira's explanation of the reality of karma and the soul's bondage to it, also became initiated. According to tradition nine more scholars argued with Mahavira and were converted, becoming his eleven disciples. Jaina tradition also claims that these eleven brought along 4400 of their pupils into the new faith.
Then Mahavira wandered in silence for sixty-six days until he reached Rajagriha, the capital of the powerful state Magadha. King Shrenika (Bimbisara) and his family attended, and he received satisfactory answers to his questions. Indrabhuti was quite learned and vain, but when an old man came to him for an explanation of a sloka Mahavira had quoted before becoming lost in meditation, Indrabhuti could not explain it. When Mahavira explained it, all of Indrabhuti's pride fell away in the presence of the great ascetic.
Mahavira organized his order into four groups of monks, nuns, male householders, and female householders. All those initiated had to take the five vows, which included the four vows of Parshva (nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, and non-possession) plus chastity. After spending the rainy season at Rajagriha, Mahavira went to Vaishali, where he initiated his daughter and son-in-law Jamali and spent the next year's monsoon season. Perceiving telepathically that the king of Sindhu-sauvira wanted to meet him, Mahavira traveled there and initiated King Rudrayana into the religion of the Shramanas. Returning from this long journey through the desert of Sindhu, they suffered from lack of food and water but remained indifferent. At Benares a multi-millionaire and his wife were converted. Spending two more rainy seasons in Rajagriha twenty-five of King Shrenika's sons were initiated into the Shramana community. It was recorded that Ardraka Kumara, a non-Aryan prince, who knew his past births, traveled to Mahavira to join his order and on his way defeated in argument Gosala, Vedic Brahmans, and other ascetics.
At Kaushambi Mahavira converted King Prodyota and several queens, who were admitted into the order of nuns. After spending a rainy season at Vaishali he went back to Rajagriha, where he converted many followers of Parshva's religion who adopted the fifth vow of the Shramana community as well. Later he convinced Keshi Kumara, the leader of the Parshva religion, that he was the 24th Tirthankara, and Keshi brought his disciples into the new order. A few years later his son-in-law Jamali left the Shramana order with his disciples to form the Vahurata sect; but it was not successful, and most of his disciples returned to Mahavira's order.
A dispute arose when Mahavira said that Gosala was not omniscient. Hearing of it and approaching Mahavira, Gosala tried to explain to him that he was no longer his disciple, because he was a different soul, who had entered Gosala's body and founded a new religion. Mahavira asked why he was vainly trying to conceal his identity. The irate Gosala swore at him and abused two of the Jaina monks, according to tradition destroying them, although Mahavira had warned them not to argue with Gosala. However, the negative energy that Gosala aimed at Mahavira returned to himself. He said that he would cause Mahavira to die of a fever in six months. Mahavira replied that he would live on, but that Gosala would be struck by his own magical power and die from fever in seven days, which came to pass. Mahavira outlived Gosala by sixteen years, but the Ajivika sect Gosala founded lasted for many centuries.
When Kunika (Ajatashatru) forcibly took over his father's kingdom of Magadha, he moved the capital to Champa, where many princes and townspeople adopted Mahavira's religion. Although Ajatashatru liked to listen to Mahavira, it did not stop him from gathering a large army and allies to attack and defeat the Vaishali confederacy in a major war that killed King Chetaka.Finally at the age of 72 Mahavira left his body and attained nirvana, liberated and rid of all karma, never to return again. His first disciple, Indrabuhti Gautama, died also at dawn the next morning.Jainism
According to Jaina tradition nine of the eleven disciples attained the highest knowledge of kevala during Mahavira's lifetime, usually many years before their nirvana and final death. Indrabhuti Gautama, the first disciple, attained kevala and nirvana the same night Mahavira died. The other disciple, Sudharma, became the leader of the Nirgrantha community (Nirgrantha means unfettered ones.) and attained kevala knowledge after twelve more years and died eight years later at the age of one hundred. Thus Sudharma led the Order (Samgha) for twenty years and was succeeded by Arya Jambu Swamy, who had been initiated at the age of 16, attained kevala knowledge twenty years later, and directed the community until his nirvana death when he was 80. According to Jaina tradition he is the last person to have attained omniscience and nirvana.The essential metaphysical ideas of Jainism are nine cardinal principles. The universe is divided into that which is alive and conscious (jiva) and matter which is not (ajiva). Jivas (souls) are either caught by karma (action) in the world of reincarnation (samsara) or liberated (mukta) and perfected (siddha). Though their number is infinite, jivas are individuals and each potentially infinite in awareness, power, and bliss. Matter (ajiva) is made up of eternal atoms in time and space which can be moved and stopped. The other seven principles explain the workings of karma and the soul's liberation from it. The soul (jiva) is attracted to sense-objects by the principle of ashrava which leads to the bondage (bandha) of the soul by karma, which covers up and limits the soul's natural abilities to know and perceive in its blissful state, resulting in delusions and a succession of births. The next two principles are virtue (punya) and vice (papa) by which all karma either works beneficially toward liberation or negatively toward bondage.
The seventh principle samvara is how the soul prevents ashrava (the influx of karma) by watchfulness and self-discipline of mind, speech, and body. This eventually leads to nirjara, the elimination of karma. Finally moksha or liberation is attained. In one's last life at death, nirvana (literally "being extinguished") describes the end of worldly existence for the soul, which then rises to the highest heaven.
Although Jainas believe that souls may have some lives as gods and goddesses in heavenly worlds or suffer in hell and become demon-like, there is no total God lifting up souls or punishing them in hell. Rather each individual jiva is responsible for itself and completely determines its own destiny, although these jivas do have the divine attributes of infinite knowledge, power, and bliss. This doctrine of individual responsibility makes Jainism a primarily ethical religion, as does the severity of their five vows of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.Ahimsa (nonviolence) means not injuring any living thing in any way, and the Jainas took it very seriously. Injuring an animal or causing anyone to do so was considered a sin. This meant walking carefully so as not to injure even the tiniest creatures. The mind had to be watched to prevent thoughts and intentions that might lead to quarrels, faults, pain, or any kind of injury. Similarly one's speech had to be carefully monitored. The Jaina must be careful in laying down their begging utensils so as not to hurt a living being, and food and water must be carefully inspected to make sure no living things are hurt or displaced.
As with nonviolence one must not speak any lies nor cause any lies to be spoken nor consent to any lies being spoken. Thus the Nirgrantha (Jaina) speaks only after deliberation and renounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth so that no falsehoods will be uttered. This vow combined with nonhurting (ahimsa) meant that speech must be pleasant and not painful or insulting in any way. Silence as a discipline was observed most of the time.Non-stealing means that nothing must be taken that is not freely given. Thus the Nirgrantha begs only after deliberation and according to strict rules, consumes food and drink only after permission is granted, occupies only limited ground for short periods of time, continually renewing the grant to be there.
Chastity is the renunciation of all sensual pleasures. To achieve this discipline monks do not discuss women nor contemplate their lovely forms nor recall previously enjoyed pleasures nor occupy a bed or couch used by women, animals, or eunuchs. A Nirgrantha does not eat and drink too much nor drink liquor nor eat highly seasoned food. Finally all attachments must be renounced, even to the delight in agreeable sounds or being disturbed by disagreeable ones. Similarly with all the five senses, one may not be able to avoid all experiences, but one is not to be attached to the agreeable ones, for those who acquiesce and indulge in worldly pleasures are born again and again. By these disciplines the wise avoid wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, hate, delusion, conception, birth, death, hell, animal existence, and pain.
In order to find liberation four things must be attained: human birth, instruction in the teachings, belief in them, and energy in self-control. This meant freeing oneself from family bonds, giving up acts and attachments, and living self-controlled towards the eternal. Collecting alms one may be insulted and despised, but the wise with undisturbed mind sustains their insults and blows, like an elephant in battle with arrows, and is not shaken any more than a rock is by the wind. The sage lives detached from pleasure and pain, not hurting and not killing; bearing all, one's luster increases like a burning flame as one conquers desires and meditates on the supremacy of virtue, though suffering pain.
The great vows, which are a place of peace, the great teachers, and the producers of detachment have been proclaimed by the infinite victor (Jina), the knowing one, as light illuminating the three worlds (earth, heaven, and hell). The unfettered one living among the bound should be a beggar, unattached to women, and speak with reverence, not desiring this or the next world. The dirt of former sins committed by a liberated mendicant walking in wisdom who is constant and bears pain vanishes like the tarnish from silver in the fire. Free from desire with conquered sensuality, one is freed from the bed of pain like a snake casts off its skin. Renouncing the world the sage is called "the maker of the end," for that one has quit the path of births.
The soul cannot be apprehended by the senses, because it possesses no corporeal form and thus is eternal. The fetters on the soul are caused by bad qualities, which cause worldly existence. The golden rule is a part of the Jaina teachings and is extended to all living beings:
"Having mastered the teachings and got rid of carelessness, one should live on allowed food,and treat all beings as one oneself would be treated; one should not expose oneself to guiltby one's desire for life; a monk who performs austerities should not keep any store."
Once a disciple of Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, asked Gautama why Mahavira taught five vows instead of four. Earlier chastity was practiced as part of non-possession or detachment, but Keshi also explained that the first saints were simple and slow of understanding; they could practice the teachings better than they could understand them. The last saints were prevaricating and slow of understanding; though they might understand them, they had difficulty practicing them. Those in between were simple and wise; they easily understood and practiced them.The three gems of Jainism are right attitude, right knowledge, and right conduct. The right attitude takes an unbiased approach, believes in the nine essential principles, and uses discriminating perception. Right knowledge proceeds through the five stages of sense perception, study, intuition, clairvoyance, and omniscience (kevala). Right conduct or character comes from self-discipline, renunciation, and pure conduct in practicing the five major vows. The rationale for self-discipline is explained in the Uttaradhyayana.
Subdue yourself, for the self is difficult to subdue; if your self is subdued, you will be happy in this world and the next.Better it is that I should subdue myself by self-control and penance, than be subdued by otherswith fetters and corporal punishment.
The rules for walking, sitting, begging for food, and evacuating one's bowels were very strict. In order to avoid causing anyone else even to do injury in preparing food, for example, monks must not accept food that is especially prepared for them. The monk must not encourage a lay person to give alms by playing with their children, giving information, praising charity, declaring one's family, expatiating on one's misery, curing the sick, threatening, showing one's learning, and so on.Attending a sacrifice performed by a Brahman, a sage named Jayaghosha explained that a true Brahman is one who has no worldly attachment, who does not repent being a monk, who delights in noble words, who is exempt from love, hate, and fear, who subdues oneself and reaches nirvana, who thoroughly knows living beings and does not injure them, who speaks no untruth from anger or fun or greed or fear, who does not take anything that is not given, who does not love carnally divine, human, or animal beings in thought, words, or action, who is undefiled by pleasure as a lotus growing in water is unwetted, who is not greedy, lives unknown with no house or property or friendship with householders, who has given up former connections with relations, and who is not given to pleasure.
Showing that character and actions are more important to what one is than outward symbols or birth and color in regard to caste, Jayaghosha declared:
The binding of animals, all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being causes of sin, cannot save the sinner;for one's works are very powerful.One does not become a Shramana by the tonsure, nor a Brahman by the sacred syllable aum,nor a Muni by living in the woods, nor a Tapasa by wearing kusha-grass and bark.One becomes a Shramana by equanimity, a Brahman by chastity, a Muni by knowledge,and a Tapasa by penance.By one's actions one becomes a Brahman or a Kshatriya or a Vaisya or a Sudra.
Then Jayaghosha warned the Brahmin that there is a kind of glue in pleasure. Those who are not given to pleasure are not soiled by it, but those who love pleasures wander around in Samsara (reincarnation) and are not liberated. He said that if you take two clods of clay, one wet and one dry, and fling them against the wall, the wet one will stick to it. So the foolish are fastened to karma by their pleasures; but the dispassionate are not, just as the dry clay does not stick to the wall.Mahavira's theory of knowledge (syadvada) is relativistic and tentative to allow for the relativity of this world. Anything may be or not be or be indescribable or any combination of these to allow for various perspectives.
Mahavira taught 73 methods for exertion in goodness by which many creatures, who believed in and accepted them, studied, learned, understood, and practiced them, and acted according to them, obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all misery. Briefly they are: longing for liberation, disregard of worldly objects, faith in the law, obedience to other monks and the guru, confession of sins, repenting to oneself and the guru, moral purity, adoration of the 24 Jinas, expiation, meditating without moving the body, self-denial, praises and hymns, time discipline, penance, asking forgiveness, study, recitation, questioning, repetition, pondering, discourse, sacred knowledge, concentration, control, austerity, cutting off karma, renouncing pleasure, mental independence, using unfrequented lodgings, turning from the world, not collecting alms in only one district, renouncing useful articles, renouncing food, overcoming desires, renouncing activity and the body and company, final renunciation, conforming to the standard, doing service, fulfilling all virtues, freedom from passion, patience, freedom from greed, simplicity, humility, sincerity of mind and religious practice and action, watchfulness of mind and speech and body, discipline of mind and speech and body, possession of knowledge and faith and conduct, subduing the five senses, conquering anger and pride and deceit and greed and wrong belief, stability, and freedom from karma.
In disciplining the mind, speech, and body, Jainas often stood in one position for a long time. Meditation might focus on such thoughts as the impermanence of worldly things, human helplessness, transitory quality of human relations, aloneness, separateness of the conscious soul from the unconscious body, the impurity of the body, how attachment binds the soul by karma, how good thoughts may release the soul, how karma may be eliminated, the difficulty of attaining perfection, and how the teachings may save one.
Mahavira's travels spread Jainism to various parts of northern India, and later migrations of monks enabled the religion to take hold in most of India. A poetic work on the rules of behavior for monks by Arya Sayyambhava written about 400 BC expresses concern that an act might "undermine the prestige of the Jaina order."6 This lapse of humility, one of the main virtues emphasized in this work, does indicate that Jainism was very likely respected by many. The examples of these extremely conscientious ascetics surely must have had their affect on people wherever they went; and since they were homeless, they traveled constantly.
Though they seem to have argued over doctrinal differences, no major schism occurred in the religion until the first century CE, and that was only over whether monks ought to go naked or whether they could wear a garment. In evaluating the ethics of Jainism we must keep in mind that the ascetic monks and nuns were probably far outnumbered by the householders, who practiced a minor version of the five vows. The primary goal of those who have renounced the world is spiritual liberation (moksha) from the wheel of reincarnation (samsara). Thus their lives were essentially motivated by this intention of removing their souls from the world. Though they lived lightly on the earth, using as little of its resources as possible, they were still dependent on lay people for their meager survival needs. The complete focus on this other-worldly goal does seem to prevent them from contributing much to society except their example of self-discipline and possibly some teaching.
Yet the lay people who practiced Jainism while earning a living and providing for their families were contributing to society while doing their best not to harm others or any living creature. Thus they were vegetarians and, if true to the teachings, lived profoundly ethical lives. Although they provided examples of peace, Jainas often supported the wars that were common in ancient India. Their individual ethic somehow was not able to expand into a larger social ethic to convert society as a whole to the nonviolence they practiced as individuals.
The extremity of their ascetic disciplines seems to have disregarded personal pleasures and happiness so much that the religion never became as popular as Hinduism or Buddhism although it managed to persist in substantial numbers. Jainism has contributed a marvelous example of individual harmlessness to our world, and though it may not be a complete solution to all human problems, it provided a spiritual path for those seeking liberation and an outstanding model of self-discipline and reverence for all life.Notes:1. Acharanga Sutra tr. Hermann Jacobi, 2:15:24.2. Majjh. I, p. 92-93 quoted in Jain, K. C, Lord Mahavira and His Times, p. 56-57.3. Sutrakritanga tr. Hermann Jacobi, 1:10:3.4. Uttaradhyayana tr. Hermann Jacobi, 1:15-16.5. Ibid., 25:30-33.6. Sayyanmbhava, Arya, Dasa Vaikalika Sutra, 5B:12.
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