The Shramanas of Ancient India

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A shramana (समण, Saman in Magadhi, Addhamagadhi, Shourseni, Mrahatti, pali and other Prakrit Languages, Sanskrit śramaṇa श्रमण) is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika religion (now extinct). Famous śramaṇa include religious leaders Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

Traditionally, a śramaṇa is one who renounces the world and leads an ascetic life for the purpose of spiritual development and liberation. Typically śramaṇas assert that human beings are responsible for their own deeds and reap the fruits of those deeds, for good or ill. Liberation, therefore, may be achieved by anybody irrespective of caste, creed, color or culture (in contrast to certain historical caste-based traditions) providing the necessary effort is made. The cycle of rebirth, saṃsāra, to which every individual is subject, is viewed as the cause and substratum of misery. The goal of every person is to evolve a way to escape from the cycle of rebirth. Sramanic traditions dispense with the rites and rituals of formal religion as factors in emancipation, emphasizing instead the paramount importance of ascetic endeavor and personal conduct.

Etymology
The Sanskrit word śramaṇa is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root śram "to exert effort, labor or to perform austerity". "Śramaṇa" thus means "one who strives" in Sanskrit.But the original word is Saman which means one who believes in Samata, i.e. equality.

One of the earliest uses of the word is in the Hindu text Taittiriya Aranyaka (2-7-1) with the meaning of 'performer of austerities'. A traditional Sanskrit definition[citation needed] is śramati tapasyatīti śramaṇaḥ ("a śramaṇa is he who exerts himself and performs religious austerities").

Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting (samita) of evil (pāpa) as in the following phrase from the Dhammapada, verse 265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil is called samaṇa").[2]

Various forms of the word became known throughout Central and East Asia, largely through the spread of Buddhism in that area. According to a still disputed etymology, the word shaman, used by the Tungus people for their religious practitioners, may be borrowed from a local variant of the word śramaṇa.[1]

Śramaṇa movement
Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed before the 6th century BCE dating back to Indus valley civilization[citation needed].

Samkhya and Yoga are two early and very important philosophies that follow the Sramana philosophy and which had their origins in the Indus Valley period of about 3000-2000 BCE. Yoga is probably the most important Sramana practice to date, which follows the Samkhya philosophy of liberating oneself from the grip of Prakriti (nature) through individual effort. Elaborate processes are outlined in Yoga to achieve individual liberation through breathing techniques (Pranayama), physical postures (Asanas) and meditations (Dhyana). Patanjali's Yoga sutra is one product (school) of this philosophy. Other Yogic schools and the Tantra traditions are also important derivatives and branches of the Sramana practices.

The movement later received a boost during the times of Mahavira and Buddha when Vedic ritualism had become the dominant tradition in certain parts of India. Śramaṇas adopted a path alternate to the Vedic rituals to achieve liberation, while renouncing household life. They typically engage in three types of activities: austerities, meditation, and associated theories (or views). As spiritual authorities, at times śramaṇa were at variance with traditional Brahmin authority, and they often recruited members from Brahmin communities themselves, such as Cānakya and Śāriputra[3].

Mahāvīra, the 24th Jina, and Gautama Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. According to Jain literature and the Buddhist Pali Canon, there were also some other śramaṇa leaders at that time.[4][5] Thus, in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions:

...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta and the Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta...[6].

Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Pāli; Skt.: Nirgrantha Jñātaputra) refers to Mahāvīra[7]. In regard to the above other teachers identified in the Pali Canon, Jain literature mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta. (The Pali Canon is the only source for Ajita Kesakambalī and Pakudha Kaccāyana.)[8]

Gautama Buddha regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead a "middle way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist saṅgha by demanding more rigorous practices. Followers of Mahāvīra continued to practice fasting and other austerities.

The śramaṇa idea of wandering began to change early in Buddhism. The bhikṣu started living in monasteries (Pali, Skt. vihāra), at first during the rainy seasons, but eventually permanently. In medieval Jainism also, the tradition of wandering waned, but it was revived in the 19th century. Similar changes have regularly occurred in Buddhism.

Śramaṇa Philosophy
Indian philosophy is a confluence of Śramaṇic (self-reliant) traditions, Bhakti traditions with idol worship and Vedic ritualistic nature worship. These co-exist and influence each other.[2] Śramaṇas held a view of samsara as full of suffering (or dukkha). They practiced Ahimsa and rigorous ascetism. They believed in Karma and Moksa and viewed re-birth as undesirable.[3]

Vedics, on the contrary believe in the efficacy of rituals and sacrifices, performed by a privileged group of people, who could improve their life by pleasing certain Gods. The Sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life is full of suffering and that emancipation requires abandoning desires and withdrawal into a solitary contemplative life, is in stark contrast with the Brahminical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life. Traditional Vedic belief holds that a man is born with an obligation to study the Vedas, to procreate and rear male offspring and to perform sacrifices. Only in later life may he meditate on the mysteries of life. The idea of devoting one's whole life to mendicancy seems to disparage the whole process of Vedic social life and obligations.[4] Because the Sramanas rejected the Vedas, the Vedics labelled their philosophy as "nastika darsana" (heterodox philosophy).

Beliefs and concepts of Śramaṇa philosophies:-
Denial of creator and omnipotent Gods
Rejection of the Vedas as revealed texts
Affirmation of Karma and rebirth, Samsara and transmigration of Soul, Later, these practices were accepted into Vedism.
Affirmation of the attainment of moksa through Ahimsa, renunciation and austerities
Denial of the efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification.
Rejection of the caste system
Ultimately, the sramana philosophical concepts like ahimsa, karma, re-incarnation, renunciation, samsara and moksa were accepted and incorporated by the brahmins in their beliefs and practices, eg. by abandoning the sacrifice of animals.[5] According to Gavin Flood, concepts like karmas and reincarnation entered mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renounciant traditions.[6] According to D. R. Bhandarkar, the Ahimsa dharma of the sramanas made an impression on the followers of Brahamanism and their law books and practices.[7]

Following are the two main schools of Sramana Philosophy that have continued since ancient times in India:

Jain Philosophy
Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras (ford-makers or enligtened teachers), of whom Mahavira was the last. Jain Acaryas - Umasvati (Umasvami), Kundakunda, Haribhadra, Yaśovijaya Gaṇi and others further developed and reorganized Jain philosophy in its present form. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief in the independent existence of soul and matter, predominance of karma, the denial of a creative and omnipotent God, belief in an eternal and uncreated universe, a strong emphasis on non-violence, an accent on relativity and multiple facets of truth, and morality and ethics based on liberation of the soul. The Jain philosophy of Anekantavada and Syadvada, which posits that the truth or reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. [8]

Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a Nepali prince later known as the Buddha. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods and which denies the existence of a creator god. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Theravada Buddhism, though most sects of Mahayana Buddhism, notably Tibetan Buddhism and most of East Asian Buddhism (in the Shurangama Mantra and Great Compassion Mantra) do regularly practice with a number of gods (as Dharmapalas and Wrathful Deities, Four Heavenly Kings, and Five Wisdom Kings) drawn from both the Mahayana Sutras and Buddhist Tantras sometimes combined with local indigenous belief systems. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being. A major distinguishing feature of its philosophy is the rejection (anatman) of a permanent, self-existent soul (atman).

Usage of "Śramaṇa" in Jain texts
In Jainism the monks and ascetics are known as Śramaṇas , while the Jain laymen are called Sravakas. The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as Śramaṇa Dharma. Jain canons like Ācāranga Sūtra[9] and other later texts contain many references to Sramanas. One verse defines a good Sramana as:

Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana.[10]

The chapter on renunciation contains a Sramana vow of non-possession:

I shall become a Sramana who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given.[11]

Acaranga Sutra gives three names of Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara, one of which was 'Sramana' :

The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called Vardhamana, because he is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira has been given to him by the gods.[12]

Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga[13] describes the Sramana as an ascetic who has taken Mahavratas, the five great vows:

He is a Sramana for this reason that he is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of a Sramana, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body.[14]

In a disputations with other heretical teachers, prince Ardraka, who became disciple to Mahavira, tells Makkhali Gosala the qualities of Sramanas:

He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Sramanas, him I call a Sramana.[15]

Śramaṇa in Western literature
Various references to "śramaṇas", with the name more or less distorted, have been handed down in Western literature about India.

Nicolaus of Damascus (c.10 CE)Nicolaus of Damascus wrote an account of an embassy sent by an Indian king "named Pandion (Pandyan kingdom?) or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus around 13 CE. He met with the embassy at Antioch. The embassy was bearing a diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was a "Sarmano" (Σαρμανο) who burnt himself alive in Athens to demonstrate his faith. The event made a sensation and was quoted by Strabo[9] and Dio Cassius[10]. A tomb was made to the "Sarmano", still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention "ΖΑΡΜΑΝΟΧΗΓΑΣ ΙΝΔΟΣ ΑΠΟ ΒΑΡΓΟΣΗΣ" (Zarmanochēgas indos apo Bargosēs – The sramana master from Barygaza in India).

Clement of Alexandria (150-211)Clement of Alexandria makes several mentions of the Sramanas, both in the context of the Bactrians and the Indians:

Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Samanaeans among the Bactrians ("Σαμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sarmanae ("Σαρμάναι"), and Brahmanae ("Βραχμαναι").[16]

To Clement of Alexandria, "Bactrians" apparently means "Oriental Greek", as in a passage of the Stromata:

It was after many successive periods of years that men worshipped images of human shape, this practice being introduced by Artaxerxes, the son of Darius, and father of Ochus, who first set up the image of Aphrodité Anaitis at Babylon and Susa; and Ecbatana set the example of worshipping it to the Persians; the Bactrians, to Damascus and Sardis.[17]

Porphyry (233-305)Porphyry extensively describes the habits of the Sramanas (whom he calls Samanaeans) in his "On Abstinence from Animal Food" Book IV [11]. He says his information was obtained from "the Babylonian Bardesanes, who lived in the times of our fathers, and was familiar with those Indians who, together with Damadamis, were sent to Caesar"

For the polity of the Indians being distributed into many parts, there is one tribe among them of men divinely wise, whom the Greeks are accustomed to call Gymnosophists. But of these there are two sects, over one of which the Brahmins preside, but over the other the Samanaeans. The race of the Brahmins, however, receive divine wisdom of this kind by succession, in the same manner as the priesthood. But the Samanaeans are elected, and consist of those who wish to possess divine knowledge.[18]

All the Brahmins originate from one stock; for all of them are derived from one father and one mother. But the Samanaeans are not the offspring of one family, being, as we have said, collected from every nation of Indians...[19]

On entering the order:
The Samanaeans are, as we have said, elected. When, however, any one is desirous of being enrolled in their order, he proceeds to the rulers of the city; but abandons the city or village that he inhabited, and the wealth and all the other property that he possessed. Having likewise the superfluities of his body cut off, he receives a garment, and departs to the Samanaeans, but does not return either to his wife or children, if he happens to have any, nor does he pay any attention to them, or think that they at all pertain to him. And, with respect to his children indeed, the king provides what is necessary for them, and the relatives provide for the wife. And such is the life of the Samanaeans. But they live out of the city, and spend the whole day in conversation pertaining to divinity. They have also houses and temples, built by the king".[20]

On life and death:
They are so disposed with respect to death, that they unwillingly endure the whole time of the present life, as a certain servitude to nature, and therefore they hasten to liberate their souls from the bodies [with which they are connected]. Hence, frequently, when they are seen to be well, and are neither oppressed, nor driven to desperation by any evil, they depart from life.[21]

References
1. For a discussion of this see Chapter Fourteen of Shamanism by Mircea Eliade, Arkana Books, 1989, p.495
2. Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur
3. Flood, Gavin D. (1996) p. 86-90
4. Pande, Govindchandra (1994) p. 135
5. Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 ""We know only this much that the doctrine of karma-samsara-jnana-mukti is first seen in the clearest form in the shramanic tradition. It is now even accepted by orthodox brahmans. This doctrine is not clearly spelled out in the Rgvedas and not even in the oldest parts of the Upanishads called chandogya and Brhadaranyaka." Page 149 "The four pillars of Jainism karma-samsara-jnana-mukti have been assimilated into Hinduism. The Pancamahavrata of Jainism (Satya, Ahimsa…) have been fully adopted by Hinduism though not with the same rigour." Page 237-8
6. Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press : UK ISBN 0521438780 P. 86
7. By D. R. Bhandarkar, 1989 "Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture" Asian Educational Services 118 pages ISBN 8120604571 p. 80-81
8. McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Allworth Communications. p. 335. ISBN 1581152035.
9. Jacobi, Hermann (1884). Ācāranga Sūtra, Jain Sutras Part I, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 22.. http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/index.htm.
10. Ācāranga Sūtra. 1097
11. Ācāranga Sūtra, 799
12. Ācāranga Sūtra 954
13. Jacobi, Hermann (1895). (ed.) Max Müller. ed. Jaina Sutras, Part II : Sūtrakrtanga. Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 45. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/index.htm.
14. Sūtrakrtanga, Book 1: 16.3
15. Sūtrakrtanga, Book 2: 6.6
16. Clement of Alexandria, "Exhortation to the Heathen" [1]
17. The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Book I, Clement of Alexandria. Clement, Stromatae I, 71,4
18. Porphyry, On abstinence from animal food, Book IV.
19. Porphyry, On abstinence from animal food, Book IV.
20. Porphyry, On abstinence from animal food, Book IV.
21. Porphyry, On abstinence from animal food, Book IV.

Early Buddhism in South India and Sri Lanka

By Rajitha Weerakoon

Sri Lanka, having preserved Buddhism in its purest form since its introduction in 236 BC, was undisputedly the key player in the 2600th Sambuddhathva Jayanthi celebrations. But what caused Buddhism to flourish in Sri Lanka as opposed to the country of the Buddha’s birth where Buddhism has little relevance today?

The cause for this contrasting outcome was traced by Professor Sudharshan Seneviratne, the Head of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Peradeniya and former Director-General of the Central Cultural Fund during a lecture tour in Chennai some years back when he spoke on “The social base of early Buddhism in South India and Sri Lanka”. During a subsequent interview, he spoke about the shared historical legacy of Sri Lanka and Southern India when he identified the social formations in the two countries at the time of the early spread of Buddhism and the period prior to this era. His study was based on historical and archaeological research.

Tracing the technological, cultural and subsistence patterns between Sri Lanka and South India, Professor Seneviratne travelled back to prehistoric times, long before the birth of ideologies so the picture of the gradual development was clear. He stated that some very early sites from the Middle Stone Age of the Megalithic Period discovered in Sri Lanka dating to around 30,000BC (which have been extensively cross-dated) suggest that the settlers may have descended from India. Sites discovered had been identified as similar to those in Tirunaveli District and elsewhere in the southern most parts of India.

The next is the period around 1000 BC when the intrusions took place in the early Iron Age at the time the Protohistoric Megalithic black and redware culture existed. But the critical elements that kicked off the beginnings of history in Sri Lanka Professor Seneviratne stated was the commencement of the use of metal and ceramics, the introduction of domesticated varieties of animals and plants especially paddy and the initiation of the earliest village culture with small crafts like bead and pottery-making taking place.

The most interesting aspects of this culture he pointed out were the introduction of burial cults or the memorials. The associated ceramic ware called black and redware bear the postfiring graffitti marks. This phase continued into the early historical period, chronologically identified as the 4th and the 3rd centuries BC when North Indian ideologies like Buddhism and Jainism entered South India and Sri Lanka.

Trade routes
Archaeological evidence from Amaravati, an ancient city which was situated in Southern India, where luxury items such as Northern black polishedware were discovered reveal that there were intrusions from Northern India to the South prior to the Mauryan period. These movements had taken place between the 6th century BC – the time of the Buddha and the 3rd century BC through the Southern trade routes. The Dhakshinapatha or the Southern trade routes mentioned even in Kautilya’s Arthsastra were functioning along the east coast of India’s looping trade network. The long-distance trade network was coming from the Gangetic delta to the South touching Sri Lanka. Ideologies were travelling along these trade routes. The episode of the trading brothers – Thapassu and Bhalluka, documented as the first to be converted by Buddha during His Lifetime who after the conversion and their trade deals arrived in Sri Lanka and built the first sthupa – Thiriyaya, illustrates this point.

According to Professor Seneviratne, either specialized traders were carrying trading items or there was a down-the-line exchange where items were moving on their own from community to community and from one centre to another. The chank (conch) shell, a specific luxury item found in the Gulf of Mannar was found in the Northern Indian excavated sites. The trade of pearls, again from the Gulf of Mannar is mentioned in early Indian Pali texts. Later, the Jataka stories make mention of the long distance trade network. By the 3rd century BC which was the Mauryan Period in India, inscriptions of Settis – the merchant bankers were found in Amaravati.

Professor Seneviratne attributes the flow of ideologies from Northern India to the trade network. What perhaps the Mauryan Empire did however was to become a catalyst and provide a greater fillip for the more organised expansion of Buddhism. Monks were travelling as missionaries or groups of people were taking the message of the Buddha with the clout of the Mauryan Empire. The adoption of the title of Devanampiya (Beloved of the Gods) by the then rulers – the epithet given to Asoka, suggests this.

There were suggestions that some of the Kerala chieftains took titles that translated as Devanampiya. In the inscriptions of the Adiyamans in the Northern areas of Tamilnadu, the Adiyamans called themselves as Sathyaputhra, which was the name given in Asokan inscriptions to “southern neighbours.”

The intrusion of Buddhism in the 4th and the 3rd centuries BC from Northern India brought not only a doctrine but also a whole new culture – a new language medium, may be even a script, a new way of living, architectural constructions and technology.

During the Mauryan Era in the meantime, there was a shift of human settlements in South India from the peripheral hills towards the plains and the river valleys of Krishna, the Cauvery and the Tamirapani in the East. This may have happened probably for greater agricultural production to a kind of demand situation with specialisation of products coming in.

Spread of ideologies
With the southern expansion of the Mauryan Empire, the long-distance trade routes expanded. The Northern Indian ideologies thus flowed out to the South with the Jains, the Ajivakas and the Buddhist clergy moving along the trade-routes, some along with merchants mingling with the people. They had to preach to a settled agricultural society as the teachings would not have had any relevance to a hunting-gathering society. Professor Seneviratne stated that in South India however, Buddhist practices changed over the years from those practised in Sri Lanka due to the emergence of Mahayanism and the resurgence of Brahminic practices. Mahayanism had a social appeal at a personal level. But unlike Mahayanism, Brahmanism incorporated the pre-Buddhist cults and deities into its fold more effectively, particularly during the time of land grants of the feudal period. Under Brahminism, it is suggested that priests may have started the process of land reclamation for agriculture. With tribal areas having all kinds of cult practices, the Brahmin priests may have moved into such socially backward areas as these were locations where they were able to practise their doctrine.

The Buddhist clergy on the other hand who were countering such practices could not move into these areas, away from their main base – the urban centres. And with more and more South Indian rulers opting for a Brahminic identity, state patronage to Buddhism gradually decreased. Thus along with the shift of trade patterns, Buddhism in South India came to an end.

Whereas in Sri Lanka, Professor Seneviratne stated, the picture totally differed as Theravada Buddhism was faithfully practised by the more orthodox Sri Lankans. Mahayanism introduced much later found it difficult to compete with the Theravada Buddhism. And unlike in South India, Sri Lanka did not have a strong tradition of pre-Buddhist cults and practices and what existed was incorporated successfully into Buddhism. Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka not only visited urban areas but also ventured into remote areas and hills along trade routes.

The monasteries by the first to the 3rd centuries AD which had expanded in Sri Lanka incorporated all the areas into their network and thus ran huge establishments even carrying on trade in order that these provided the sustenance while the state continued to be their chief patron.

Kongar Puliyankulam Jain Hill Madurai

Prof. Dr. Kanaka. Ajithadoss

A 2000 years old Jain Heritage treasure at Madurai- All the hills in and around Madurai are Jain Hills- One is at Konkar Puliyan Kulam- 17 KM west of Madurai on Madurai- Kambam Highway. The hill is also called Panchapandavar Malai. it has a very large cave with about 50 stone beds; this was the abode of Jain Ascetics from 2nd cent.BCE. at one plce on the rock a bas relief Thirthankar idol is present which was the gift of Great Achrya Ajja Nandhi who revived JinaDharma In Madurai and the whole of Tamil nadu around 10th cent CE, On the brow of the cave three Tamil- Brahmi Inscriptions are found dating back to 2nd cent. BCE ( 2000 years old).

The Origin And History Of Yoga

Yoga is India's unique contribution to the world. It is a more intense form of prayer and religious worship. It is a way of reaching out to God through intense personal effort. Yoga aims to build a bridge between the world in which we live and the world from which we came. It attempts to reverse the process of creation and connect us to our source. It gives us an opportunity to transcend our limitations and realize who we are and what our true potentials are.

Yoga has been the applied science of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism for the last several centuries. In this world you will come to know about the true meaning of the word yoga and how it was practiced in the ancient world. the History of yoga. Our knowledge of yoga comes to us mostly from the work of Patanjali who lived sometime in the early Christian era. The Yogasutras is the most authoritative ancient scriptures on yoga. However Patanjali did not invent the system of yoga. It was practiced in the Indian subcontinent long before him and practiced by the followers of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and many ascetic traditions that were subsequently integrated into Hinduism. the Indus people were probably familiar with some aspects of yoga.

Followers of the Samkhya school used yoga as the means to liberate themselves from the hold of Prakriti. the Samkhya philosophy was probably the oldest of the Indian traditions to practice yoga for spiritual liberation. The Jain yoga is also one of the oldest yoga systems practiced in the Indian subcontinent. It focused more on the restraint and self denial to the extent of self-mortification. the Buddha was against hurting the body for spiritual aims. He suggested a more softer middle path in which right means were employed to attain right ends. The ancient Buddhist yoga focused on dhyana and similar practices to become aware of breath and body sensations to cultivate mindfulness. The third part of the video deals with Yoga in the Vedic world and concepts of yoga mentioned in some of the earliest upanishads like the Katha Upanishad, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Svetasvatara Upanished and also how the Vedic ritual was internalized for the purpose of self-realization.




Courtesy: Hinduwebsite

Jain Acharyas From South India & Their Contributions

By Prof. Bhagchand Jain

Jaina Ācāryas From South India & Their Contributions

1.0 Introduction

The survival of Jainas, though as a minority community, for the last so many centuries in India- and especially in south India can be safely attributed, among other things, to the glorious and continuous tradition of Jainas saints for more than a thousand years. They never attempted to lead a solitary life in isolation from others. On the contrary, the Jainas always tried to preserve contacts with the general masses so as to encourage them to lead a religious life.

The contribution of South India to development of Jainism is remarkable one in all the spheres like religion, philosophy, literature, art and architecture. Here we confine ourselves to introduce mainly the pontiffs like Bhadrabāhu, Guņadhara, Dharasena, Puşpadanta, Bhutavali, Kundakunda, Yativŗşabha, Sivārya, Samantabhadra and Akalanka etc. who composed a vast Prākŗta and Sanskrit Jaina literature.

2.0 Jaina ācāryas and their tradition

Śruta (Scripture or Canon) is the soul of the religious traditions. It is an anthology of the sermons of Tīrthańkaras, may be called God in non- Jain traditions, or their direct or indirect disciples who have attained the certain spiritual purification. It is therefore established as an authority and priority as the form of religion. The scriptural texts are engraved in the hearts of believers who draw inspiration and revival from them in every age.

Ācārya is the spiritual guide and the head of the monastic order. He should also be a proficient in his own philosophical principles as well as other’s philosophies.

Jaina thinkers enriched practically all the faculties of literature. Mahāvīra is the Arthakartāof the present Śrutajňāna of Jaina tradition and Gautama Gaņadhara is its Granthakartā. Gautama expressed his views without adding anything from his own side. The Śruta is of two types Ańgabāhya and Ańgapravişta. Ańgapravişta is of twelve types, viz.:

1. Āyārańga
2. Suyagadāńga
3. Thāņāńga
4. Samavāyāńga
5. Viyāhapaņņatti
6. Nyāyāyaddhmmakahāo
7. Uvasagadasāo
8. Antagadadasāo
9. Anuttarovavāiya
10. Panhavagaanaim
11. Vivāgasuyam
12. Dŗştivāda, the twelfth Ańga.

According to the Digambaras the Canonical literature has been lost.

1. Ācārya Bhadrabāhu

Bhadrabāhu, was the disciple and successor of the fourth Śrutakevali Govardhana. He went to South India with a large Jaina Sangha during the famous famine of twelve years which was due to happen in Magadha. He was the knower of the 14 Pūrvas. Candragupta Maurya the famous Mauryan emperor was his main disciple who went Page 136 of 555 STUDY NOTES version II with him to south and accepted Sallekhana at the hill of Sravanabelagola. The Brhatkathākośa of Harisena (p.317-19) supports this fact.

2. Ācārya Guņadhara

Guņadhara was the first and foremost monk who achieved the partial knowledge of Ańgas and Pūrvaśruta after Lohārya. He was the knower of 5th Pūrva Pejjadosapāhuda and Mahākammapayādipāhuda, while Dharasena was knower of only Pūrvagatakammapayādipāhuda. Therefore Guņadhara is the first Pūrvavid Śrutadharācārya in Digambara Jaina Tradition. He composed Kaşāyapāhuda in Prākŗta verses as pointed out by Virasena in his Jayadhavala commentary:

Jeniha kaşāyapāhusamaneyanayamujvalam anam tattha.
Gāhāhi vivariyam tam Guņahara bhadarayam vande. Gatha 6

This reference indicates Guņadhara as elder to Dharasena in age and the knowledge as well. The linguistic characteristics also support the view that the Kaşāyapāhuda is prior to Şaţakhańdāgama. Vīrasena in his Jayadhavalatika on Kaşāyapāhuda says in this regard:

“Puno tao ceva suttagahao airiyaparamparae agamacchamanio ajjamankhunagahattinam pattao. Puno tesim donham pi padamule asidisadagahanam gunaharamuhakamalaviniggayanamattham sammam souna jayivasahabhadaraena pavayanavacchalena cunnisuttam kayam”

3. Ācārya Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti

Nandisūtra Pattāvalīrefers to Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti as proficient in scriptures and Karmaśāstras and disciple of Āryasamudra (Gathas 28-30). The Śvetāmbara tradition questions about the conduct of Āryamamksu and perhaps on the same basis, Yativŗşabha and Vīrasena mentioned his teachings as Apavaijjamaņa and Nāgahasti’s teachings as Pavaijjamaņa (based on ācārya tradition). Therefore these ācāryas may be contemporaries possessing different opinions.

The Dhavalatīka refers to both these ācāryas as Mahāśramaņa, Kśamāśramaņa, and Mahāvācaka. All these attributes are sufficient to prove that they were well-versed in scriptures and Karma philosophy. They had also the knowledge of Ārātiya tradition (Kaşāyapāhuda 5, p.388). Virasena clearly says that Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti studied the Kaşāyapāhuda from Guņadhara. Indranandi in his Śrutāvatāra supports this view through the following verse:

Evam gāthasutrāņi paňcadasamahāshikarani.
Praviracya vyacakhyau sa nāgahastyaryamamksubhyam. Gatha 154

Kaşāyapāhuda is the concise form of the Pejjadośapāhuda. It was, therefore, more convenient to have the oral study of the Agamas. Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti procured them through oral tradition and Yativŗşabha obtained them through Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti as revealed by Vīrasena (Jayadhavala part 1, p.88). Here in this reference the words “Āyariyaoaramparae agacchamanio” and “Souna” are very important. It appears that these Gathas were prevalent in oral tradition during the period of Āryamamksu and Nāgahasti. Many generations of Ācāryas passed away. Yativŗşabha was their disciple who studied Kaşāyapāhuda from them and composed the commentary called Cūrņi Sutra on the work consisting of six thousand ślokas. Uccaranācārya composed the Uccaranasutras on the Cūrņisutras. Then Vīrasena and Jinasena composed the Jayadhavalatika on the Kaşāyapāhuda in mixed Prākŗta and Sanskrit languages.

4. Ācārya Dharasena, Puşpadanta and Bhutavali and their works

They are great spiritual philosophers of Digambara Jain tradition. They were profound scholars of Karma Siddhānta, Dharasena was the teacher of Puşpadanta and Bhutavali. Dharasena made a request to the Congregation that two monks well-versed in Jain Karmasiddhānta are sent to him immediately to save the knowledge which he had gained from the pūrvas. Accordingly, Puşpadanta and Bhutavali went to Dharasena, the knower of the Purvagata Kammapāyadi Pāhuda who was engaged with his penance and counting his last days. They gained the required knowledge from Dharasena and returned back to their natives. Puşpadanta composed the Visadisutta, the Satparuvaņā of Şaţkhandāgama for Jinapalita and then sent it with Jinapalita to Bhutavali in Dravid country for going through the Visadisutta, the other name of Satprarupaņā. Puşpadanta was elder to Bhutavali. Bhutavali understood that the duration of life of Puşpadanta is remained not much. Puşpadanta prepared the synopsis of the Şaţkhandāgama and disturbed the Jivatthāna into eight Anuyogadvāras. Satprarupaņā was its first Anuyogadvāra which was written by Puşpadanta. The other Anuyogadvāra as the he parts of the Şaţkhandāgama were composed by Bhutavali..

5. Ācārya Yativŗşabha and His Works

Nothing much is known about him. His two works are mainly available, Kaşāyapāhuda Cunnisutta and Tiloyapannatti. The first does not indicate any thing about him. But the other one Tiloyapannatti informs of course as follows:

Panamaha jinavara-vasaham, ganaharavasaham taheva gunaharavasaham. Dusaha-parisaha-vasaham, jadivasaham dhammasutta padhae vasaham. Cunnasaruvam attham, kara padama-pamana-kimjantam. Atthasahassa-pamanam, Tiloyapannatti-namae. Gatha 77 Tiloya. Part 2, p. 882

Kaşāyapāhuda Cunnisutta

The Kaşāyapāhuda Cunnisutta of Yativŗşabha is known as Vrtti, which provides the different meanings of Bijapadas in a condensed way. In other words, the Cunnisutras are the exposition of Bijapadas as pointed out by using the word “Anucintiun nedavvam” or “Genhiyabbam”. The total number of Sutras of the work is 7009.

The Kaşāyapāhuda Cunnisuta is divided into fifteen Adhikāras, which are somewhat different from the division made by Ācārya Guņadhara. Uccaraņa commented upon the Cunnisutta.

6. Tiloyapaņņatti

The second work Tiloyapaņņatti is the earliest text relating to Loka or Universe. The Text Tiloyapannatti is divided into nine chapters, i.e. Jagat Svarupa, Narakaloka, Bhavanavasi Loka, Manuşyaloka, TiryakLoka, Vyantara Loka, JyotisiLoka, Kalpavāsi Loka, and Siddha Loka. It is a treasure of culture standpoints. The fourth chapter of the Text deals with Jain mythological views relating to Kalpavŗksas, Śalākāpuruşas, Samavasaraņa and so forth. It appears that some of the Gathas are added there in the text afterwards. For instance, a prose portion in the seventh chapter (P. 766) is borrowed or added afterwards from Dhavala (Pu. 4, p.157) as Dhavala itself refers to Tiloyapaņņatti. Likewise, 7th to 87th Gathas of the first chapter are also borrowed from Santaprarupaņā of Dhavala. This does not mean that the Tiloyapaņņatti is composed in 8th or 9th c. A.D. In fact such portions are defiantly added interpolated.

7-8. Dhavala-tika and Jayadhavala –tika of Vīrasena and Jinasena on the Kaşāyapāhuda and Şaţkhandāgama

Vīrasena composed Dhavala Tika on the Şaţkhandāgama in Prākŗta – Sanskrit mixed language called Maņipravāla style. It was written in memory of Rāştrakuta king Amoghavarśa who was called Dhavala. Considering the importance of Dhavalatika, Jinasena says “It is the Tika of Vīrasena and the other Tikas are simply Panjikas. The Tika exposes the Siddhānta, the philosophical trends and in this context the Dhavalatika is Tika in true sense. Both Dhavala and Jayadhavala Tikas discuss the Jain philosophical trends profoundly they deal with the subjects of Mahākarmaprakritiprābhrita and Kaşāyapāhuda.

Vīrasena was the disciple of Āryanandi and Elācārya. Jinasena praises him by saying śrutakevalī and Prajňāśramaņa. Vīrasena completed the Dhavalatika in Saka Sam. 738 (816 A.D.) He composes only Purvārdha part of the Dhavala and Jayadhala tika. The Uttarārdha part of both the Tikas was written by his disciple Jinasena.

Jayadhavala Tika on theKaşāyapāhuda

Jayadhala Tika on the Kaşāyapāhuda was written by, Vīrasena and Jinasena. Vīrasena composed it up to the fifth Vargaņā Khanda and the remaining part by Jinasena. Vīrasena distributed the chapters of Kaşāyapāhuda according to his own arrangement. Since the original text is related to Jňānapravāda, the author discussed in detail the nature of knowledge and Nayas. All the Anuyogadvāras are described here in brief in the first chapter. According to Indranandi, Jayadhavala Tika is composed in sixty thousand verses (Śrutāvatāra, 182-184).

Other Karma literature composed in South India

In later period the Ācāryas continued to compose the Karma literature in both the traditions, Digambara and Śvetāmbara. The Karmaprakriti (475 Gathas) appears to be a common earliest and oldest Text which would have been a main source for composing such literature Śvetāmbaras composed many Cūrņis and Tikas on this text. It is the work of an unknown author but traditionally it is composed by Śivasamasuri, in about 5th c. A.D. It’s Prākŗta cunni by unknown author, and Sanskrit Tikas by Malayagiri and Yaśovijayaji are also available. The Paňcasangraha of Candrasimahattara and some other Karma literature, Cunni of Śvetāmbara and Tikas are also available but they are not composed in South India.

Ācārya Nemicandra Siddhāntacakravarti

He hails from Karnataka. He was the disciple of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, and Indranandi. Cāmuņdarāya who constructed the huge monumental statue of Bāhubali at Sramanabelagola was his disciple. To teach the Jain Siddhanta to Cāmuņdarāya he composed the Gommatasāra Jivajnanda and karmakanda on the basis of Dhavala and Jayadhavala in tenth c. A.D.

Some other Ācāryas from South

Some more names of Acaryas from South may be mentioned here. For instance Svāmi Kumāra Kārtikeya, Umāsvami, Samantabhadra, Pujyapāda, Pātrakesari, Joindu, Jatasinhanadi, Akalamka, Vīrasena-Jinasena, Vidyānanda, Prabhācandra, Puşpadant and so forth, we cannot discuss all of them in this short period. Let us know something about Vidyānanda.
Ācāryas Vidyananda

Ācārya Vidyānanda hails from Karnataka. He was Brāhmaņa by caste and belonged to Nandisangha. He may be placed in about ninth c. A.D. He composed Āptaparikśā with Svopajňavrtti, PramāņaParikśā, Pātraparikśā, Satyaśāsanaparikśā, Śrīpurapārśvanātha Stotra, Vidyānanda mahodaya, Aştasahasri tika on Āptamimāmsā of Samantabhadra, Tattvārthaslokavārtika, the commentary on Tattvārthasutra of Umāsvami and Yuktānuśāsanalankāra, the commentary on the Yuktānuśāsanalankāra stotra of Samantabhadra.

Sthananga Sutra | Jain Mathematics

As per the Śvetāmbara belief, Sthananga Sutra forms part of the first eleven Angas of the Jaina Canon which have survived despite the bad effects of this Hundavasarpini kala. This is the reason why, under the leadership of Devardhigani Ksamasramana, the eleven Angas of the Svetambara canon were formalised and reduced to writing. This took place at Valabhi 993 years after Māhavīra's nirvana. (466 CE). In the vacana held at Valabhi, in Gujarat, the Sthananga Sutra was finalised and redacted. The language used is Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. The mula sutras of the Sthananga Sutra are difficult to understand without the help of a commentary or tika. Hence, in the 11th century CE, Abhayadevasuri wrote a comprehensive Sanskrit gloss on the Sthananga Sutra.

Description

The Sthānāngasūtra is known in Prakrit as the Thanam. The word thanam denotes quantum. Hence, the style of the Sthananga Sutra is unique. It is divided into ten chapters, and each chapter enumerates certain topics according to their numbers. Each chapter is titled as a Thana. (Sanskrit: Sthānā) This āgama defines and catalogues the main substances of the Jain metaphysics. Diverse topics such as the Dharmakathanuyoga, Carananuyoga, Karananuyoga and Dravyanuyoga are covered. While the focus is on Karananuyoga, this unique āgama serves as a huge anthology to all branches of Jaina knowledge.

Because all topics, terms and things are thought of as fitting well with number one, number two, and so on, up to number ten, and because they are listed accordingly, the word "sthāna" in the titles of the ten chapters as well as in the title of our work means "place". The Sthānāngasūtra is an anga-text in which "terms and things" are listed in their "right place". Sthānānga maybe considered as a memory aid for an ācārya, so that he might not forget the varied subject matters he wants to teach. With this work he has a kind of guideline for his lessons at hand and can easily reply to questions asked by his disciples.

Importance of Sthānāngasūtra can be gauged from the fact that Vyavahāra Chedasūtra (10, 20-34) mentions that it is suitable to be studied only by those ascetics, who have at least eight years standing in monkhood. Further more it is stated that only a monk who knows the Sthānānga by heart may attain the position of an ācārya, which, entitles him to supervise the monks and nuns in regard to their conduct and study.

Authorship

The first sūtra in the Sthānānga goes as follows: sūyam me āusam tenam Bhagavayā evam akkhāyam - "I have heard, o Long-Lived one, that the Venerable (i.e. Mahāvīra) has said thus." From this it can be gauged that as per the tradition it was recited by ganadhara Sudharman, the fifth direct disciple of Mahāvīra, to his disciple Jambūsvāmin.

Contribution to Mathematics

Sthananga Sutra lists the topics which made up the at the trom the time of 2nd century BCE onwards. In fact this list of topics sets the scene for the areas of study for a long time to come in the Indian subcontinent. The topics are listed in as .:- the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations. It also gives classifications of five types of infinities.

The topics of mathematics, according to the Sthananga-sutra (sutra 747) are ten in numbers:

• Parikarma (four fundamental operations),


• Vyavahara (subjects of treatment),


• Rajju (geometry),


• Rashi (mensuration of solid bodies),


• Kalasavarna (fractions),


• Yavat-tavat (simple equation),


• Varga (quadratic equation),


• Ghana (cubic equation),


• Varga-varga (biquadratic equation) and


• Vikalpa (permutation and combination).

However, the historians of mathematics differ in explaining some of the terms from the commentator, Abhayadeva Suri (1050 AD).

Thousand Pillar Temple of Moodbidri

-Amritha Nayak

Mangalore : India is a land of diverse religions and history. Each religion has got its own captivating history and legends. Every religion has its own historical monuments, each of which is an unique piece of art and architecture, and thus has tremendous individual importance of its own. Architectural wonders have been an intricate part of every religion. They lend every religion an individual identity and also are evidence of the important events and incidents which took place in the past. These important events and incidents shaped up the religion they belonged to, and thus were catalysts to the religion’s spreading far and wide and gaining popularity.

Jainism is a religion which has its origin in India and which gained strategic importance and popularity in course of time. Jainism has its own plethora of historical monuments, each of which is backed by unique and mesmerizing stories and legends, which lend the monument an aura of vibrant and elegant past. These stories and legends beckon people to visit and explore the beauty of such monuments. Some of the important Jain monuments are located in some interior places of India.

About an hour from the city of Mangalore is the city of Moodbidri, which has been an embodiment of some of the architectural wonders of Jainism. Here is the world’s unique and magnificent Jain temple, The Thousand Pillar Basadi, which is located in the main city, and which lends particular enchantment to the city of Moodbidri. The Thousand Pillar Basadi is in fact, a misnomer, as it only means many pillared Basadi and not exactly a Basadi with a thousand pillars. There is no considerable surmise as to how it became a misnomer, as there is no inscriptional evidence on the matter.

Jainism in Moodbidri started around 12-13th century A.D. During the Vijayanagara Period, Jainism in South Canara reached its zenith, since Moodbidri developed into a great center of Jainism. This was made possible because of the patronage given by the then ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire, to the growth and development of all the religions flourishing in his empire. All the Jain monuments in Moodbidri were constructed during the Golden Vijayanagara Period.

The surrounding areas of the city were ruled by the localites called the ‘Chautas’. The administration of Moodbidri was under the direct control of the Vijayanagara Empire, with a certain amount of autonomy. The Jains had a central board of religious authority in Moodbidri, known as the Jain Mutt, which was presided over by the head of the Mutt, Charukirti Battaraka. The word Battaraka means ‘Swamiji’.

The 1000 Pillar Basadi, as also the other Basadis in Moodbidri, were not constructed by any king or ruler. Charukirti Battaraka wanted to construct a Jain temple in Moodbidri, with the help of local people. He requested the then ruler of Vijayanagara Empire to grant him a piece of land for the construction of the temple. The Vijayanagara ruler, being a person of generous virtue, granted him the piece of land, on which the Basadi stands, for its construction. In 1430 A.D, under the guidance of Charukirti Battaraka, the merchant organizations of Moodbidri, the locally well placed people and the Chautas contributed to the construction of the 1000 Pillar Basad

The 1000 Pillar Basadi is a marvelous magnificent place of worship of the Jains. The temple was constructed in 3 stages. In its 1st stage in 1430 A.D, the Main Building, which forms the 1st main part of the temple, which houses the idol of Chandranatha Swamy (Theertankara, who is the temple deity) was constructed. In the 2nd stage of construction, which began in 1451 A.D, the Bhairadevi Mantapa, which is the 2nd main part of the temple, was constructed. It was also constructed by the local well to do merchants. The 3rd stage of construction began in 1462 A.D, when Nagala Devi, wife of King Bhairava, who was a Jain ruler, decided to construct the Manasthambha, which constitutes the 3rd main part of the temple. There is inscriptional evidence of the 3 stages of construction on the walls of the Main Building.

The Main Building, which houses the idol of the deity, is the most beautiful part of the temple. The Bhairadevi Mantapa is the most ornate part, which has 48 pillars with beautiful carvings on them. The Manasthambha, is a sacred pillar of the Jains, and thus is found only in Jain temples. After the 3 stages of construction got complete, the local people attributed the construction of the Mantapa also to the wife of King Bhairava (Nagala Devi), and thus the Mantapa came to be known as Bhairadevi Mantapa.The idol of Chandranatha Swamy is a 9 feet solid Panchaloha idol, which is one of the biggest Panchaloha idols in South India. The Manasthambha, is a solid structure of over 50 feet, which happens to be one of the tallest sacred pillar of Jains in South India.

Starting from the entrance, the entire temple can be divided into 7 distinct parts, which are as follows:
1.Mnasthambha
2.Bhairadevi Mantapa
3.Gaddige Mantapa (Also known as Chitradevi Mantapa)
4.Namaskara Mantapa
5.Theerankara Mantapa
6.Lakshmi Mantapa
7.Garbha-Griham (the sanctum-sanctorum)

The temple has 3 storeys-the ground floor, 1st floor and the 2nd floor. The ground floor has the 3 main parts of the temple on it, i.e., the Main Building, the Bhairadevi Mantapa and the Manasthambha. On the 1st storey of the temple, there are statues of 2 main Theertankaras,Parshvanatha and Suparushuva. What is fascinating though is that all the 24 Theertankaras have been carved on one panel on this storey. The 2nd storey has more than 300 miniature crystal statues of Theertankara

Stone slabs and copper sheets have been used for the roofing of the temple. An astonishing fact of the temple is that, if one takes a close look at the pillars, one will notice that the pillars are adorned with the carvings of Hindu Gods and Hindu mythological characters. The outer base of the outer wall of the Bhairadevi Mantapa has a running panel of carved mminiature unusual figures, like those of Camel and Dragon. History has it that the merchants of Moodbidri had trade relations with China and the Middle East. As such, they were quiet fascinated by the Chineese and Middle Eastern traditional symbols like Camels and Dragons. That is the reason why they are found etched on the running panel of a Jain temple. There is inscriptional evidence to support this inference

The 1000 Pillar Basadi is referred to by different names. Tribhuvana Tilaka Chudamani, Chaityalaya and Hosa Basadi are the other names of the 1000 Pillar Basadi.

The number 18 has got a special significance to the city of Moodbidri. There are 18 Basadis, 18 temples and 18 lakes in the city. Moodbidri is a calm and quite city, with the various religions co-existing in peace and harmony. With the various avenues of education being made available in the city, it is on the road to growth and development as an educational center. Even though it is an interior place, its rich and unique history of Jainism and the various architectural wonders make it an indispensable and fascinating place in its own way.

Vegetarianismo jaina

El vegetarianismo jaina es la dieta de los jainas, los seguidores del jainismo. Es la dieta con motivación religiosa más estricta del subcontinente indio.

Como ocurre con el hinduismo y el budismo, las objeciones de los jainas a comer carne o pescado se basan en el principio de la no violencia, el ájimsa. Según este principio, todo acto por el que una persona directa o indirectamente apoye la muerte o el daño es visto como violencia (jimsa), consecuentemente crea un karma dañino. El objetivo del ájimsa es evitar la acumulación de ese karma.[1]

La intensidad con la que esta intención es llevada a la práctica varía ampliamente entre hinduistas, budistas y jainas. Los jainas consideran que la no violencia es el deber religioso más básico para cualquiera, como lo refleja la frase «ájinsa paramo dharmáh, escrita frecuentemente en templos jainas.[2] [3] [4]

Es además una condición indispensable para liberarse del ciclo de la reencarnación[5] que es el fin último de todas las acciones jainas. Si bien comparten este objetivo con budistas e hinduistas, su particular cuidado en llevar a cabo la no violencia en las actividades diarias y especialmente en la comida se convierte en una seña de identidad para el jainismo.[6] [7] [8] [9] Un efecto secundario de esta disciplina estricta es el ejercicio del ascetismo, que en el jainismo es fomentado tanto para laicos como para monjes y monjas.[10]

Práctica del vegetarianismo jaina
Para los jainas, el lacto vegetarianismo (en India conocido como vegetarianismo) es obligatorio. Cualquier comida que contenga partículas, por pequeñas que sean, de cuerpos de animales muertos o huevos es totalmente inaceptable.[11] Algunas autoridades y activistas jainas apoyan el veganismo pues la producción de productos lácteos implica una importante violencia (himsa) sobre las vacas.

Los jainas llevan este planteamiento al punto de evitar herir insectos u otros animales pequeños[12] pues creen que el daño causado por descuido es tan reprobable como el daño causa deliberadamente.[13] Por ello toman muchos cuidados a la hora de asegurarse de que ningún pequeño animal o insecto haya sufrido daños en la preparación de sus comidas o en el acto de comer y beber.[14]

Los jainas habían tenido prohibido tradiionalmente beber agua sin filtrar. En otro tiempo, cuando se empleaban baolis como fuente de agua, la tela empleada como filtro solía ser dada la vuelta y sobre ella se vertía un poco agua filtrada, para que los onganismos que se hubieran quedado en ella volvieran al agua. Esta práctica se conoce como yivani (de yivá: ‘vida’) o bilch-javani. Hoy en día los jainas pueden seguir realizando este ritual con agua del grifo y unos pocos llevan a cabo este proceso incluso con agua mineral embotellada.

Los jainas hacen considerables esfuerzos para no herir plantas en la vida diaria. Admiten que las plantas deben ser destruidas por la necesidad alimentaria, pero solo acptan esta violencia en la medida en que sea necesaria para la supervivencia del hombre. Existen instrucciones concretas para prevenir una violencia innecesaria hacia las plantas[15] . Los jainas no comen verduras de raíz (como zanahorias) ni tubérculos como patatas o cebollas. Consideran que al extraer la planta se matan pequeñas formas de vida, y ven el bulbo como un ser vivo, dado que podría volver a germinar.[16] Además, el consumo de las raices implica desarraigar la planta y su muerte completa. En cambio, el consumo de la mayoría de los vegetales terrestres pueden consumirse sin matar la planta, que seguirá viva, y que de todos modos algún día se marchitará.

La miel está prohibida, dado que recolectarla lleva aparejada violencia hacia las abejas.[17]

Están prohibidos los alimentos que han comenzado a pudrirse.

Tradicionalmente, cocinar o comer por la noche estaba desaconsejado, pues los insectos son atraídos por las lámparas o por el fuego. Los jainas estrictos hacen el voto (anastamita o anthau) de no comer después de la puesta de sol.

Los jainas estrictos no consumen comida que ha pasado la noche cocinada, dado que posee una mayor concentración de micororganismos en comparación con la comida que se consume tras ser preparada. En esta misma línea, no consumen yogur, dhokla o idli, a no ser que hayan sido preparados frescos ese mismo día.

Los jainas no consumen comidas ni bebidas fermentadas, incluyendo las alcohólicas, para evitar matar a todos los microorganismos asociados a la fermentación.

En periodos específicos del caledario jaina se abstienen de consumir verduras de color verde.

Trasfondo histórico e influencia
Cuando Majavirá organizó el movimiento jaina en el siglo VI o V a. C.,[18] el ájimsa ya era una regla establecida o observada estrictamente[19] . Parshva, un líder jaina (Tirthankar) considerado por historiadores occidentales como figura histórica[20] había fundado una comunidad a la que pertenecían los padres de Majavirá [21] . Sus seguidores prometía seguir el ájimsa.[22] Esto fue adoptado por Majavirá en su código de conducta. En los tiempos de Majavirá y en los siglos siguientes, los jainas criticaron a los budistas por su incoherencia a la hora de llevar a cabo el ájimsa. Particularmente protestaron contra los vedistas (seguidores de la religión védica, precursora del hinduismo más pacifista) por la costumbre de realizar sacrificios animales con el subsiguiente consumo de carne y por las cacerías.[23]

La gastronomía vegetariana de algunas regiones ha sido fuertemente influida por la práctica del vegetarianismo jaina, como ocurre en la gastronomía de Guyarat[24] .

Notas
1. James Laidlaw: Riches and renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the jains (págs. 26-30 y 191-195). Oxford, 1995.
2. Paul Dundas: The jains (pág. 160). Londres, segunda edición, 2002.
3. Kristi L. Wiley: «Ahimsa and compassion in jainism», en Peter Flügel (ed.): Studies in jaina history and culture. Londres, 2006, pág. 438.
4. James Laidlaw: Riches and renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the jains (págs. 153-154). Oxford, 1995.
5. Jema Chandra: Yogashastra 2.31.
6. Laidlaw, págs. 154-160.
7. K. B. Jindal: An epitome of jainism. Nueva Delhi, 1988, págs. 74-90.
8. Unto Tähtinen: Ahimsa: non-violence in indian tradition. Londres, 1976, pág. 110.
9. Dundas, págs. 176-177.
10. Dundas, págs. 187-192, 199-200; Laidlaw, págs. 153-159.
11. Laidlaw, págs. 166-169; Tähtinen, pág. 37.
12. Jindal, pág. 89; Laidlaw, págs. 54, 154-155, 180.
13. Sutra-kritanga-sutram 1.8.3; Uttara-adhiaiana-sutra 10; Tatua-artha-sutra 7.8; Dundas, págs. 161-162; Granoff, págs. 32-35.
14. Vilas Adinath SANGAVE: Jaina community, a social survey (págs. 260-261). Bombay, segunda edición, 1980; Tähtinen, pág. 109.
15. R. M. Lodha: «Conservation of vegetation and jain philosophy», en: Medieval jainism: culture and environment. Nueva Delhi, 1990, págs. 137-141; Tähtinen, pág. 105; Dundas, pág. 106.
16. Laidlaw, págs. 156-157, 167-170; Sangave, pág. 260.
17. Jema Chandra: Yoga-shastra 3.37; Laidlaw, págs. 166-167; Tähtinen, pág. 109.
18. La fecha tradicional de la muerte de Majavirá es el 527 a. C.
19. Goyal, S.R.: A History of Indian Buddhism, Meerut 1987, págs. 83-85; Asim Kumar Chatterjee : A comprehensive history of jainism, vol. 1, Calcutta 1978, pág. 14
20. Dundas, pág. 30 suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in the late 9th or early 8th century, Chatterjee, pág. 15.
21. Acharanga Sutra 2.15; Chatterjee, págs. 20-21.
22. Sthananga Sutra 266; Tähtinen, pág. 132; Goyal, págs. 83-84, 103.
23. Dundas, págs. 160, 234, 241; Wiley, pág. 448; Granoff, Phyllis: «The violence of non-violence: a study of some jain responses to non-jain religious practices», en: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 15, págs. 1-43, 1992; Tähtinen, págs. 8-9.
24. «Catering to Jain palate». The Hindu (30-06-2004). Consultado el 05-05-2010.
Obtenido de «http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianismo_jaina»

¿Cuál Es Jainismo?

-E. Erickson

El Jainismo comienza con una seria preocupación por el alma humana en su relación con las leyes que gobiernan la existencia en el universo, con los otros seres vivientes y con su propio estado futuro en la eternidad. Primeramente, y antes que nada, es una religión del corazón: la regla de oro es Ahimsa o la no violencia en todos los aspectos de la persona, mental, verbal y físico. Los jainistas tienen una profunda compasión por todas las formas de vida.


El Jainismo ofrece una tranquila, extraordinariamente seria forma de vida, una insistencia cultural sobre la compasión, una sociedad ética que ha cambiado el mundo dramáticamente y continuará efectuando cambios. El Jainismo es un modo de vida ecológicamente responsable que es no violento en pensamiento, acción y hechos.

El Jainismo y el alma
Los “jainistas” son los seguidores de los jinas. “Jina” literalmente significa “Conquistador”. Es un Jina aquel que ha conquistado el amor y el odio, el placer y el dolor, el apego y la aversión, y por lo tanto ha librado a “su” alma de los karmas que ocultan el conocimiento, la percepción, la verdad y la habilidad. Los jainistas se refieren al Jina como Dios.

Orígenes del Jainismo
Originario del subcontinente indio, el Jainismo, o más apropiadamente el Dharma Jainista, es una de las religiones más antiguas de la región y también del mundo. El jainismo tiene orígenes prehistóricos que datan de antes de 3000 a.C. y de los comienzos de la cultura aria del Indo.

La religión jainista es única en el hecho de que durante sus 5.000 años de existencia nunca ha transigido en el concepto de la no violencia ni en el principio ni en la práctica. Sostiene la no violencia como la suprema religión (Ahimsa Paramo Dharma) y ha insistido en su observancia en pensamiento, palabra y acción a nivel individual y social. El texto sagrado Tattvartha Sutra lo resume con la frase “Parasparopagraho Jivanam: (toda la vida se sustenta mutuamente). La religión jainista presenta una perspectiva verdaderamente iluminada de la igualdad de las almas sin importar las diferencias en las formas físicas, desde los humanos, pasando por los animales, hasta los organismos vivientes microscópicos. Los humanos son los únicos poseedores de los seis sentidos, vista, oído, gusto, olfato, tacto y pensamiento; por lo tanto de los humanos se espera que actúen con responsabilidad hacia toda la vida siendo compasivos, sin egoísmo, sin miedo, misericordiosos y racionales.


Código de conducta Jainista
En pocas palabras, el código de conducta esta hecho de cinco votos y todas sus conclusiones lógicas: Ahimsa, Satya (veracidad), Asteya (no robar), Aparigraha (desapego a lo material) y Brahmacharya (castidad). La religión jainista pone mucha atención en la Aparigraha, desapego a las cosas materiales a través del control de uno mismo, penitencia, abstención de la indulgencia, limitación voluntaria de las necesidades y consecuente disminución de la agresividad.

Vegetarianismo
El vegetarianismo es un modo de vida para un jainista, teniendo su origen en el concepto de compasión por los seres vivos, Jiva Daya. La practica del vegetarianismo es vista como un instrumento para la práctica de la no violencia y la coexistencia pacífica y cooperativa. Los jainistas son vegetarianos estrictos que consumen solamente seres sin sentidos, principalmente del reino vegetal. Si bien la dieta jainista por supuesto implica daño a las plantas, esto se ve como la forma de sobrevivir que causa el mínimo de violencia hacia los seres vivos (muchas formas vegetales incluyendo raíces y ciertas frutas también están excluidas de la dieta jainista, debido al gran numero de seres vivos que contienen por el ambiente en que crecen).

Traducción: Damián

Chandragupta Maurya

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Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य), (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320 BCE,[1] – 298 BCE[2]) was the founder of the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent. According to some ancient Buddhist texts, he claims descent from the Shakya rulers of solar race. Buddhist texts describes about his lineage with the "Moriya" clan of Shakya rulers hence he was the scion of the solar race of Kshatriya's. Having defeated the Greek satrap in the Khyber mountains around 303 BCE, Chandragupta was crowned King at Taxila. As a result, Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and its first genuine emperor.[3] In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokyptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or Androcottus.[4]

Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated the northwestern subcontinent, while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the middle and lower basin of the Ganges.[5] After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and Assam[6] in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the west, to Kashmir and Nepal[7] in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south.[8]

His achievements, which ranged from conquering Macedonian satrapies in the northwest and conquering the Nanda Empire by the time he was only about 20 years old, to achieving an alliance with Seleucus I Nicator and establishing centralized rule throughout South Asia, remain some of the most celebrated in the history of India. Over two thousand years later, the accomplishments of Chandragupta and his successors, including Ashoka the Great, are objects of great study in the annals of South Asian and world history.

Origins
Little, if anything, is known for certain about Chandragupta Maurya's origins. Many Indian historians held the view that Chandragupta was an illegitimate child of the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha in eastern India, born to a Nanda prince and a maid named "Mura",[9][10] later literary traditions imply that Chandragupta may have been raised by peacock-tamers (Sanskrit: Mayura-Poshaka), which earned him the Maurya epithet.

Both the Buddhist as well as Jain traditions testify to the supposed connection between the Moriya (Maurya) and Mora or Mayura (Peacock).[11] .This literary traditions according to which Chandragupta belonged to Moriyas, a Kshatriya clan of a little ancient republic of Pippalivana ("Piparahiyan" in modern day in Gorakhpur) located between Rummindei in the Nepali Terai and Kasia in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

A kshatriya people known as the "Mauryas" who had received the relics of the Gautama Buddha are also mentioned in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya: "Then the Moriyas of Pipphalivana came to know that at Kusinara (known as KushiNagar as a district of Uttar Pradesh near Gorakhpur) the Blessed One had died. And they sent a message to the Mallas of Kusinara, saying: "The Blessed One was of the warrior caste, and we are too. We are worthy to receive a portion of the relics of the Blessed One. We will erect a stupa over the relics of the Blessed One and hold a festival in their honor.

The Buddhist text of the Mahavamsa calls Chandragupta a section of the Khattya (Kshatriya) clan named Moriya (Maurya). Divyavadana calls Bindusara, son of Chandragupta, an anointed Kshatriya, Kshatriya Murdhabhishikata, and in the same work, king Ashoka, son of Bindusara, is also styled a Kshatriya. The Mahaparinnibhana Sutta of the Buddhist canon states that the Moriyas (Mauryas) belonged to the Kshatriya community of Pippalivana. These traditions, at least, indicate that Chandragupta has come from a Kshatriya lineage. The Mahavamshatika connects him with the Sakya clan of the Buddha, a clan which also claimed to belong to the race of Aditya i.e. solar race.

A medieval inscription represents the Maurya clan as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriyas. It is stated that the Maurya line sprang from Suryavamsi Mandhatri, son of prince Yuvanashva of the solar race .

“ The first statue installed in the courtyard opposite Gate No. 5 of Parliament House, is of the great Indian Emperor Chandragupta Maurya It is incribed on it that "Shepherd Boy Chandragupta Maurya dreaming of the India he was to create".

Historically, founder of the Mauryan dynasty Chandragupta Maurya was a (Shepherd) boy who with the help of the Brahmin Chanakya revolted against the atrocities of the Nanda kings and established the Mauryan Empire.

Early Life
Very little is known about Chandragupta's youth. what is known about his youth is gathered from later classical Sanskrit literature, as well as classical Greek and Latin sources which refer to Chandragupta by the names "Sandracottos" or "Andracottus". He was paragon for later rulers.

According to traditional accounts, Chanakya, a teacher at Takshasila University at the time of Alexander's invasion, found the boy Chandragupta from the Magadha kingdom in eastern India. As the story goes, Chandragupta was playing as a king with his friends and was giving justice to another boy playing criminal. He also saw the kindness inside him to help others. Chanakya saw this and was impressed with Chandragupta's sense of justice. Chanakya asked his mother about him. His mother told him that his father, Dhamashah used to work as a servant of the Nanda king who ruled over the kingdom of Maghada and due to some fault he was sent into the prison. Chanakya told her to take him to the king and ask him to give some education to Chandragupta. Then she went to his court. There Chandragupta solved a problem for the king. The king was impressed and told his minister to join him in the best university at that time, The Vishvavidhyalay of Takshasila[often known as the Takshasila University][9]

Plutarch reports that he met with Alexander the Great, probably around Takshasila in the northwest, and that he viewed the ruling Nanda Empire in a negative light:

“ "Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth." ”
—Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Life of Alexander 62.9


By this statement, it shows the noble or high origin of Chandragupta Maurya .

According to this tradition, the encounter would have happened around 326 BCE, suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta around 340 BCE.

Junianus Justinus (Justin) describes the humble origins of Chandragupta, and explains how he later led a popular uprising against the Nanda king:he was known as king of the time.

“ "He was of humble origin, but was pushing to acquiring the throne by the superior power of the mind. When after having offended the king of Nanda by his insolence, he was condemned to death by the king, he was saved by the speed of his own feet... He gathered bandits and invited Indians to a change of rule." ”
—Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

Foundation of Mauryan Empire
Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya defeated the Magadha kings and the bulk army of Chandravanshi clan and defeated generals of Alexander settled in Gandhara (Kamboja kingdom of Aryan Mahajanpad) which is called as Afghanistan now. At the time of Alexander's invasion, Chanakya was a teacher at Takshasila University. The king of Takshasila and Gandhara, Ambhi (also known as Taxiles), made a treaty with Alexander and did not fight against him. Chanakya saw the foreign invasion against the Indian culture and sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander. Porus (Parvateshwar), a king of Punjab, was the only local king who was able to challenge Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River, but was defeated.

Chanakya then went to Magadha further east to seek the help of Dhana Nanda, who ruled a vast Nanda Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to eastern Punjab in the west,[12] but he denied any such help. After this incident, Chanakya began sowing the seeds of building an empire that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasion into his disciple Chandragupta.

Kautilya's role in the formation of the Mauryan Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel The Courtesan and the Sadhu by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash.[13]

Nanda Army
According to Plutarch, at the time of Alexander's Battle of the Hydaspes River, the size of the Nanda Empire's army further east numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander's men and stayed their further progress into India:

“ "As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was •thirty-two furlongs, its depth •a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at‑arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no boasting in these reports. For Androcottus, who reigned there not long afterwards, made a present to Seleucus of five hundred elephants, and with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India." ”
—Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Life of Alexander" 62.1-4


In order to defeat the powerful Nanda army, Chandragupta needed to raise a formidable army of his own.[12]

Conquest of Nanda Army
Chanakya had trained Chandragupta under his guidance and together they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.[16]

It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that the protagonist and Chanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces. Regardless, in the ensuing war, Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala – commander of Dhana Nanda's armies. He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nanda in a series of battles, ending with the siege of the capital city Kusumapura[12] and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321 BCE,[12] thus founding the powerful Maurya Empire in Northern India by the time he was about 20 years old.

Conquest of Macedonian territories in India
After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta, turned his attention to Northwestern India (modern Pakistan), where he defeated the satrapies (described as "prefects" in classical Western sources) left in place by Alexander (according to Justin), and may have assassinated two of his governors, Nicanor and Philip.[disambiguation needed][3][12] The satrapies he fought may have included Eudemus, ruler in western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE; and Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE. The Roman historian Justin described how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta's name) conquered the northwest:

“ "Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on its back, and became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness; who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight. " ”
—Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.19

Expansion
By the time he was only about 20 years old, Chandragupta, who had succeeded in defeating the Macedonian satrapies in India and conquering the Nanda Empire, had founded a vast empire that extended from the Bay of Bengal in the east, to the Indus River in the west, which he would further expand in later years.

Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories
Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.
Chandragupta extended the borders of his empire towards Seleucid Persia after his conflict with Seleucus c. 305 BCE.Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian satrap of Alexander, reconquered most of Alexander's former empire and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta:

“ "Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus. He crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward." ”
—Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55


The exact details of engagement are not known. As noted by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar[9] and D. D. Kosambi, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly, having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Due to his defeat, Seleucus surrendered Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae, and Aria.

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[17][18] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan.

“ "After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus." ”
—Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15


It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants,[9][19][20][21][22][23] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[24]

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:

“ "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love." ”
—Athenaeus of Naucratis

Southern conquests
After annexing Seleucus' eastern Persian provinces, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern parts of Indian Sub-continent, from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta then began expanding his empire further south beyond the barrier of the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau except Tamil Country,Kalinga(modern day Orissa).[12] By the time his conquests were complete, Chandragupta succeeded in unifying most of Southern Asia. Megasthenes later recorded the size of Chandragupta's acquired army as 400,000 soldiers, according to Strabo:

“ "Megasthenes was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of 400,000 men" ”
—Strabo, Geographica, 15.1.53


On the other hand, Pliny, who also drew from Megasthenes' work, gives even larger numbers of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants:

“ "But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people, not only in this quarter, but one may say in all India, their capital Palibothra, a very large and wealthy city, after which some call the people itself the Palibothri,--nay even the whole tract along the Ganges. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600,000-foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources." ”
—Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4

Jainism

Chandragupta gave up his throne towards the end of his life and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu, migrating south with them and ending his days in sallekhana at Shravanabelagola, in present day Karnataka; though fifth-century inscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southern migration around that time.[25] A small temple marks the cave (Bhadrabahu Cave) where he is said to have died by fasting.


Footprints of Chandragupta at Shravanbelagola

There are two hills in Shravanabelagola, Chandragiri (Chikkabetta) and Vindyagiri. The last shruta-kevali, Bhadrabahu Swami, and his pupil, Chandragupta Maurya (formerly the King), are believed to have meditated here. Chandragupta Basadi, which was dedicated to Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, was originally built there by Emperor Ashoka in the third century BC.

Successors
Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son, Bindusara, who became the new Mauryan Emperor. Bindusara later became the father of Ashoka the Great, who was one of the most influential kings in history due to his important role in the history of Buddhism. Ashoka the Great left his life of war to study the art of Buddhism. Ashok's grandson Samprati ruled from Ujaain. He was staunch supporter of Jainism and helped the Jain monks to spread Jainism all over India under guidence of his teacher Acharya Suhasti.

References
1 Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998) [1986]. A History of India (Third ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 59. ISBN 0-415-15481-2.
2 Kulke and Rothermund 1998:62
3 a b Boesche, Roger (January 2003). "Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India". The Journal of Military History 67 (1): 9–37. doi:10.1353/jmh.2003.0006. ISSN 0899-3718.
4 William Smith (ed), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, Vol 3 p. 705-6
5 Shastri, Nilakantha (1967). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 26. ISBN 81-208-0465-1.
6 Bruce Vaughn (2004). "Indian Geopolitics, the United States and Evolving Correlates of Power in Asia", Geopolitics 9 (2), pp. 440-459 [442]
7 H. Goetz (1955). "Early Indian Sculptures from Nepal", Artibus Asiae 18 (1), p. 61-74.
8 The Span of the Mauryan Empire, Kamat's Potpurri, accessed 9 September 2007
9 a b c d Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804368.
10 Biographies: Chandragupta Maurya
11 Parisishtaparvan, p 56, VIII239f
12 a b c d e f Radha Kumud Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), pp. 31, 28–33.
13 The Courtesan and the Sadhu, A Novel about Maya, Dharma, and God, October 2008, Dharma Vision LLC., ISBN 978-0-9818237-0-6, Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934274
14 Boesche, Roger (January 2003). "Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India". The Journal of Military History 67 (1): 9–37. doi:10.1353/jmh.2003.0006. ISSN 0899-3718. "Kautilya [is] sometimes called a Chancellor or Prime Minister to Chandragupta, something like a Bismarck..."
15 Trautmann, Thomas R. (1971). "The Cāṇakya-Candragupta-Kathā". Kauṭilya and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
16 John Marshall Taxila, p. 18, and al.
17 Vincent A. Smith (1998). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120613031.
18 Walter Eugene Clark (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology", Classical Philology 14 (4), p. 297-313.
19 Ancient India, (Kachroo ,p.196)
20 The Imperial Gazetteer of India‎, (Hunter,p.167)
21 The evolution of man and society‎, (Darlington ,p.223)
22 W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 60, p. 84-94.
23 Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1592400531.
24 Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
25 Digambaras, Overview of World Religions, accessed 9 September 2007

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