BY MR. SUBHASH JAIN
The known history of India is a few thousand years old. During this long time span several religions and their philosophical thoughts have emerged. After having depth realisation of their irrespective philosophy, the ace religious leaders, preachers and philosophers have Provo gated among the masses the best of their principles for their spiritual and general well being.
It is interesting that the main doctrines of all the religions are similar in spirit but their followers have made their own interpretation according to their convenience, which have created gulf in religious though and thereby the aversion.
However, the great persons of all the religions have targeted upon spiritual and moral uplift of man. The religions have become strong medium of common harmony among the followers of the same faith, whereas the different interpretations have carried the followers of one faith distantly from the others.
Whatever may be religious differences in propagation of philosophical thoughts, for transformation into action, the man's desire to create the magnificent and memorable monuments has been alike. Such monuments attract the people of all faiths and that is why, the places of touristic importance having much attractive monuments invite the tourists from world over.
Whereas the affluent nations have the resources to protect and maintain their monuments on national level and increase their touristic importance more and more by publicity, renovation and keep, the poor nations face the misfortune of gradual deterioration of even the national importance monuments in the absence of adequate funds to maintain and protect those.
Jain religion is an oldest living religion. Its antiquity is yet undecided. The Jains believe their religion as eternal whereas the historians feel the absence of the proof. However, the existence of many monuments of pre-Christian era compels them to accept the comparative antiquity of Jain religion.
The Jain monuments, small and large, old and new, have been built in almost all parts of India. Though the Jains are decidedly a richer community of the country, but their apathy towards maintenance of all the monuments of antiquity is agonising.
All the 24 Jain Trithankaras, according to the Jains, were born in the royal, Ksatriya families. Their influence on the common masses, both by heredity and their great renunciation, was immense. Their followers, who mostly belonged to the trading community, effected various types of structures to keep the memory of their 'Istdev' everlasting. That is why the Jain monuments, throughout the length and width of the country abound in number.
All matter has certain life; decay is a natural phenomena. But it is the man's effort which can put the decay to a later period, i.e. increase the life of the monument.
It is pity that the apathy of the Jain community towards their old monuments still exists, though lesser in degree. The last two decades have seen a substantial urge in the Government and the elite people for protecting their monuments within the limits of their resources.
The fact remains that most of the old monuments of the Jains in the country, are still lacking funds through their managing committees, philanthropists and governments. To over come the grim situation and to advance further in the protection of the crumbling monuments. I have certain points to suggest:-
1. There should be a total survey of all the Jains monuments in the country by an expert team of Achaelogists, who should grade the monuments according to their present condition, viz;
(i) Which are in imminent danger of falling because of much antiquity, weather effects or public damage. This type of monuments should receive the highest attention for their renovation and proper maintenance and to save those from further. damage.
(ii) Those monuments, the decay in which is in middle stage, such monuments also need renovation as early as possible.
(iii) Those monuments where the process of deterioration has started.In the case of such monuments even minor renovation can enhance their life and the structural attraction.
Bihar and Karnataka have been the oldest seats of the Jains, according to the historians. The result has been that these two states have the oldest Jain monuments. The characteristic of the monuments of the southern region is that being carved out of comparatively harder stone, they are still in better condition, with the expectation of few, which are directly exposed to wet air and where the deterioration is there by more prominent.
The monuments in other states of India, particularly in Gyaraspur region of Madhya Pradesh and at many sites in Rajasthan are special more degraded, because of direct exposure to vagaries of weather, long neglect and constant public damage.
It is awaful that the massive 'Mahadevi' temple in Gyaraspur which can be rightly said the konark type temple and which will involve a cost of atleast several rores of rupees, if built now, is seeing its worst days, because of absolute neglect, both of the local people and the affluent Jain society. The government too has not shown any inertest in this magnificent temple, which has a fine and delicate latice work.
Several Jain icons in the temple in the standing posture are sixteen feet or above in height. The roofs of the temple are in precarious condition. Similar is the fate of a small but old Jain temple by the name of 'VAJRAMATH' standing on the road side. Several temples made of small bricks have the broken roofs. All these deserve the Jain community's priority concern.
Not only this, but many of the old Jain sites in the country have similar tale to tell.
The largest treasure of Jain icons at 'Deograh'. 'Chanderi', 'Ahar' etc. are in no way being kept well. Even most of the beautiful images which these treasure houses have, are facing neglect and are without proper display to exhibit the fine and delicate art of sculpturing .
Whereas the affluent Jains spend huge amounts on construction of new temples and holding 'panch Kalyanak Partisthas at very high expense, it is their primary duty to first protect, fully renovate and maintain their degraded structures in the country.
Article From 'Sixth World Jain Conference' ( 1995) Souvenir
Showing posts with label indian art. Show all posts
Showing posts with label indian art. Show all posts
Jan 7, 2009
Dec 14, 2008
Jain Art and Architecture
By Dr. N. L. Jain
The Jainas could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest times. It has a religious orientation in its art in varied forms. Being predominatly idolators, they have good iconography and icon making art. They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood, stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could carve icons out of stones also. All icons have been made according to dimensions with attractive meditating faces of victors expressing the idea of successful withdrawl from worldly life. There are many idols of international accreditation-one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh state need special mention for their magnificience and heights. The icons are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days with high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the last quarter of this century.
Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum, one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir), hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks. The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art. They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.
The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious field.
Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still continuing gracefully.
Wall paintings are also found in many temples and caves representing religious stories, tenets and prominent incidents of Victors lives, mother's dreams, legendary scenes, miniature painting and palm leaf or paper decoration (manuscripts) which has also been an art of respect. The exquisite samples of this art are found in many Jain manuscrpit libraries. Wood carving has also been an art. It seems some of these arts have been declining considerably.
The art and architecture of the Jainas have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. They also glorify the devotees too internally with psychological bliss. Jainas realised that true art represents the spirit of true religion. Besides its religious value, it has been taken as a treasure of the country. That is why many Jain art centers have become tourist attractions now.
Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum, one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir), hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks. The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art. They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.
The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious field.
Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still continuing gracefully.
Wall paintings are also found in many temples and caves representing religious stories, tenets and prominent incidents of Victors lives, mother's dreams, legendary scenes, miniature painting and palm leaf or paper decoration (manuscripts) which has also been an art of respect. The exquisite samples of this art are found in many Jain manuscrpit libraries. Wood carving has also been an art. It seems some of these arts have been declining considerably.
The art and architecture of the Jainas have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. They also glorify the devotees too internally with psychological bliss. Jainas realised that true art represents the spirit of true religion. Besides its religious value, it has been taken as a treasure of the country. That is why many Jain art centers have become tourist attractions now.
Nov 15, 2008
JAINA MONUMENTS IN NORTH KARNATAKA
Dr. A. V. Narasimha Murthy
At the outset it is necessary to clarify that the division of Karnataka Into South and North is only for the sake of convenience. In this connection north Karnataka is taken as the area comprising the present Karnataka excluding the old Mysore State. The monuments in these districts have been considered in a chronological manner taking the dynasties also into consideration.
BEGINNERS:The origin of Jaina architecture in north Karnataka is still uncertain as the vestiges of the early period have not come down to us. Jaina structures contemporary to the sojourn of Bhadrabahu to Sravanbelgola have not been found here so far. Even the early historic excavations which exhibit Satavahana culture as at Vadagaon Madhavpur and Sannati have not yielded any antiquity or structure that can be associated with Jainism. However, it has to be noted that the antiquities and structures of the former site have yet to be studied in detail and the latter site is yet to be fully excavated. This leaves us with the Kadambas of Banavasi who were known to be patrons of Jainism as evidenced by their inscriptions.
KADAMBA PERIODThe existance of Jaina temples during the period of the Banavasi Kadambas is amply evidenced by their epigraphs. The earliest references to a grant by a Kadamba king to a Jaina saint is found in the Halasi copper plate of kakusthavarman.1 It mentions that the granted village Khatagrama belonged to arhanta. However, a reference to a Jain temple (Chaityalaya) is found in the Devagiri copper plate of Mrigesavarman.2 The insription states that Mrigesavarman gave a grant for the sammarjana, upalepana, archana and bhagnasamskara of the Chaityalaya located at Brihatparalur. Further he also donated for the enclosure of the Chaityalaya one nivartana of land. This clearly shows that the above Chaityalaya was big enough to have an enclosure also. In the Devagiri inscription of Vijaya Siva Mrigesavarman a reference is made to arhat sale where an image of Jinendra was kept. 3 Mrigesavarman's Halasi inscription of 8th regnal year states that the king built a Jinalaya in memory of his father in Palasika and granted lands to saints of Yapaniya, nirgrantha and kurchaka sangha.4 Ravivarma's eleventh regnal year inscription found at Halasi refers to a grant for the abhisheka of Jinendra.5 Obviously this refers to a, Jaina temple. Another inscription of the same king refers to the worship of Jinendra for which four nivartanas of land was granted .6
The famous Gudnapur inscription of Ravivarman is more explicit on this point.7 According to this inscription King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha, very' near the palace (rajavesma) and arranged for its worship by granting lands. At the same time he also gave grants to Kamajinalaya at Hakinipalli and Padmavati temple at Kalliligrama. Dr. B.R. Gopal who has edited this inscription has suggested that this Kamajinalaya is a temple for Bahubali, as Bahubali is described as Manmatha. If this is so, the tradition of erecting gommata sculptures goes back to the period of Kadambas and to sixth century A.D. itself. However, Dr. A. Sundara has discovered a sculpture of Rati and Manmatha at the same place. Whether this was the sculpture worshipped in the Kamajinalya cannot be ascertained. What is more important is the tradition of building Jaina temples for Manmatha and even Padmavati.
The Halasi inscription of Ravivarma refers to interesting information.8 It states that the income from the gifted village should be used for eight-day festival in Kartikamasa in the Jinalaya at Palasikanagara. It states at the end wherever Jinendra worship takes place properly, that place will prosper without any fear from enemies and the prowess of the king will improve. The Devagiri plates of prince Devavarma refers to gifts for the worship in the Chaityalaya and for the repairs of the Chaityalaya.9All the inscriptions referred to above mention gifts for worship and repair to Jaina temples. However, many of them refer to a Jaina temple at Halasi. The Jaina temple' now standing at Halasi can not go back to a period earlier than eleventh century A.D. Then the question is what happened to the basadis referred to in the inscriptions. Perhaps they might have been built by wood and obviously perished. A. Sundara's field work at Halasi throws very important light on this point.1O Very close to the Kallesvara temple at Halasi, he discovered an ancient site going back to megalithic and early historic periods. A large number of brick walls of the ancient period have been noticed by him in and around and abviously he thinks that this represents the Jaina temple built during the Kadamba period. Full scale excavations at Halasi and Gudnapur are bound to yield the brick temples of this early period. That would, show the contribution of the Kadambas of Banavasi to the Jaina architecture of Karnataka.
BADAMI CHALUKYAN PERIODAfter the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the early or Badami Chalukyan kings. Their contribution to architecture and sculpture is not only well known but unprecedented. Most kings of this powerful dynasty patronised Jainism also though they were the followere of Vedic Hinduism. This is attested to by many inscriptions including that of the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, composed by the famous poet Ravikirti. The Jaina architectural beginnings made earlier by the Kadambas of Banavasi, crystalised into better structures in stone during the early Chalukyan period. As they used stone as the medium of their architecture, they have come down to us in good numbers.
The Chalukyas of Badami ate known for their rock cut temples as well as structural temples. At Badami there are four rock cut temples belonging to Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina faiths. Incidentally this is an eloquent testimony to the religious tolerance of the kings and the people during the period. The fourth cave is the Jaina cave dedicated to Adinatha Tirthankara. He is seated on the lion pedestal, reclining slightly on the smooth cushion. There is a triple umbrella (mukkode) over his head in relief. There are two Chamaradharis attending on the Tirthankara. On the left wall is a standing sculpture of Suparsvanatha with a seven hooded snake over him. To his right is a Yakshi holding a Chatra; to the left is a Yaksha sitting. On the opposite wall is the sculpture of Bahubali intertwined with creepers. In the inner mandapa on both sides are found two sculptures of Mahavira. In addition there are sculptures of twenty eight Jinas. The whole cave is 31 ft. wide and the depth is 16 ft. The entire composition is very elegant.
Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. It has an open mandapa and a Sabhamandapa. In the garbhgriha is the sculpture of Mahavira in Padmasana. On the sides are yaksha and yakshi standing. In the open mandapa are found high relief sculptures of Parsvanatha and Bahubali. However, this cave is not as refined and elegant as that of Badami.
Now we may refer to the structural temples built by the Chalukayas of Badami. The following are noteworthy among them. They are - Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole; the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar; during the period of Kirtivarman II. Kaliyamma built a temple at Annigeri; the Jinalaya at Hallur; the Jinalaya built by Dharmagamunda at Adur in Hangal taluk. The Meguti Jinendralaya was built in 634 A. D. by Ravikirti The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala and a mukhamandapa perhaps a later addition. There is a narrow pradakshinapatha around the garbhagriha. In the garbhagriha attached to the wall is the sculpture of Mahavira. In the antarala was a fine sculpture of Yakshi Ambika sitting in ardha lalitasana. Over the garbhagriha is another garbhagriha which also has a sculpture of Tirthankara. The adhisthana has miniature decorations.
The Sankha Jinalaya at Lakshmesvar is dedicated to Neminatha. Sendraka Durgasakti, a feudatory of Pulakesi II is said to have given gifts to this temple.u It is possible that it may be earlier or atleast contemporary to the Meguti temple. Many other inscriptions show that this was an important Jaina temple during the period. an inscription of Vinayaditya dated 686 A.D. refers to a grant to Jaina acharya of Devagana and mulasangha.12 Another epigraph of the time of Vijayaditya dated 729 A. D. mentions a grant to Niravadya Pandita who was to house pupil of Sri PUjyapada.13 Still another inscription of the time of Vikramaditya II dated 734 A. D. mentions gifts to Sveta Jinalaya.14
The Jain temple at Hallur has garbhagriha, antarala, and rectanular Sabhamandap. The garbhagriha has an upper storey and is similar to Meguti temple. The Sabhamandapa is bigger than garbhagriha and antarala and has a seperate mukhamandapa which is in ruins. Thus it shows a more developed architectural feature. The outer walls of the Sabhamandapa has low relief sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras. Thus the Chalukyas of Badami contributed in ample measure to the development of Jaina temple architecture and laid firm foundations for further development during the Rashtrakuta period.
RASHTRAKUTA PERIODAltekar ,characterises the Rastrakuta period as the golden age of Jainsim in Karnataka. This is amply demonstrated by a large number of Jaina epigraphs and also generous grants to Jaina temples. Amoghavarsha I used to consider himself purified by the very remembrance of his guru Jinasenacharya.15 He is also described as a follower of Syadvada.16 He had appointed the famous Jaina saint Gunabhadra as the teacher for his son Krishna.17 Krishna gave liberal donations to the Jaina temple at Mulgund. Indra IV was a devoted Jaina and he died committing Sallekhana.18 Many of the Rashtrakuta feudatories like Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism, From all these evidences Altekar estimates that atleast one third of the total population of the Deccan during the period were Jains.19
The Jaina monuments of the Rashrakuta period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmesvar, Koppala, Bankur, in the present day karnataka and at Ellora in Maharastra which was included in the Rastrakuta empire, The jaina temple at Pattadakal consists of a garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa, The garbhgriha door jambh has a fine makara torana, Opposite walls of antarala have Devakoshthas to house Yaksha and Yakshis, The sabhamandapa is square and has four pillars in the centre, The mukhamanadapa has been provided with Kakshasanas, The garbhagriha has a dvitala Nagara sikhara, it has another garbhagriha on the first floor like the Meguti temple, The outer walls in the western and northern sides have Jina sculptures which confirm that this is a Jaina temple, It is believed that this temple was built either during the time of Amoghavarsha I (814-874 A.D.) or Krishna I (c. 770 A.D.). From the stylistic features ninth century A,D, seems' to be reasonable for this temple.
The Jaina basadi at Konnur in Dharwad district was built during the period of Amoghavarsha I, by Bankesa in 860 A.D, It has a garbhagriha, antarala, sabhamandapa and a ruined mukhmandapa, The unique feature of this temple is the star shaped gabhagriha, which later became a unique feature of the Hoysala temples in southern Karnataka- There are three niches .in the garbhagriha which is also rare, The antarala has two pillars while the Sabhamandapa has twelve pillars, The latter also has two stone Jalandhras, Th.e mukhamandapa is reached through flight of steps.
The Jaina temple at Naregal in Ron taluk of Dharwad district was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. (Now it is referred to as Narayana temple), It is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka, It has a sikhara of Dravida vimana type over the garbhagriha, Acutally it is a trikuta, The main garbhagriha of this temple was meant for a Jina, and is square, The other two garbhagriha are rectangular, and have rectangular pedestals from wall to wall with twenty-four holes indicating that both of them were meant for establishing twenty-four Tirthankara sculptures, This is also a unique feature of this basadi. This became common in the eleventh century A.D.
The Settavva temple at Aihole is another storeyed basadi. It is more elaborate in execution. It is also a trikuta. Besides it has three ardhamandapas and a common navaranga.
The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Unfortunately the original structure has been repaired often and henc.e it is difficult to know its original features. The garbhagriha has a fine seated Neminatha sculpture. Other sculptures found here are those of Parsvanatha, Dharanendra and Padmavati. Some more Jina sculptures are in the Sabhamandapa; but they seem to belong to later periods.
The basadi at Bankur in Gulburga district seems to belong to the end of the Rashrakuta period. There are many fine sculptures in this temple. Notable among them are Adinatha, Chandraprabha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Padmavati, high relief sculptures of twenty-four tirthankaras.
In addition to the above Jaina temples of the Rashtrakuta period many more are also found which are not properly documented. Outside the present Karnataka State, the Rastrakuta basadis are found at Ellora where there are three Jaina cave temples referred as Chota Kailas, Indrasabha and Jagannathasabha.
The Rashrakuta epigraphs supply evidence for the construction of many more Jaina temples which have not been properly located. Some important epigraphs may be noted below. In 875 A. D. Krishna II built a Jinendra bhavana at Savadatti.2O In 902 A. D. Pergada Bittayya built a basadi at Bandanike.21 During the period of Krishna II was built the Mahasrimanta basadi at Pennugunda. 22 In 925 A. D. Nagayya built a temple at Asundi when Chandraprabha bhattaraka of Dhora Jinalaya was the administrator.23 In 932 A. D., Chandavve built a basadi at Nandavara.24 In 964 A. D., a Ratta chief built Jayadhire Jinalaya at Kupana {modern Koppala).25 In 958 A. D. Jakki Sundari built a Jinalaya at Kakambal. 26
The above epigraphical references and the extant Jaina monuments prove that the Rashtrakuta period was a golden age from the point of view to Jaina architecture also. However, it has to be admitted that exploration of Rashtrakuta architecture in Karnataka has to be done more systematically. In this connection the good beginning made by S. Rajasekhara in identifying the possible Rashtrakuta monuments in Karnataka on the bas.is of stylistic evidences and epigraphs is worth laudable. 27 Further research is bound to yield more Rashtrakuta monuments including Jaina temples in Karnataka.
KALYANA CHALUKYA PERIODWith the decline of the Rashtrakutas, most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Though they are known to be Saivas, they built Jaina temples. Many kings of this dynasty also granted gifts to Jaina establishments and individual saints. The development of Kalamukhas on the one side and the Virasaivism of Basavanna on the other were making great progress in north Karnataka and naturally this did not give enough scope for Jainism to blossom as it did in the earlier Rashtrakuta period. Nevertheless, it flourished through the royal patronage and contributed its share in the development of architecture. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana is well known as the patron of the great Jaina poet Ranna. King Satyasraya had a Rajaguru Vimalachandrapanditadeva under whose feet the king is said to have learnt the tenets of Jaina dharma. Attimabbe, known as danachintamani is a well known personality of this period. She is said to have made one thousand copies of Ponna's Santi pur ana and distributed as Sastradana. She built a Jaina temple at Lakkundi to which the king provided a golden Kalasa.28 Somesvara's minister Santinatha persuaded Lakhma to build the Mallikamoda Santinatha basadi at Baligrama.29 All these show the existence of Jainism during the period as well as royal patronage.
The Chalukyas of Kalyana were great temple builders all over Karnataka and they brought out new development in various components of temple. This was adopted to the Jaina temples built by them. This is amptly brought out by K.V. Soundararajan when he states" ….the Jaina temple building efforts went through more or less the same stages of growth and development as the Brahmanical, Jainism nevertheless maintained its entity by taking recourse to certain iconographic specializations which called for a distinctive layout. In surface treatment again, the Jaina temples eschewed all ostentatiously carved richi1ess on the exterior wall or fabric of the temple but were not averse to an extravagant display of ornamentation and figure work in the interior". 30 These distinctive features are found in the Jaina temples built by the Kalyana. Chalukyas at Lakkundi and other places. They generally consist of a garbhagriha, antarala, navaranga and mukhamandapa. Usually they do not have sculptyres on the outer walls. In the navaranga pillars are found with small sculptures. The sculptures generally consist of Bahubali, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, other Tirthankaras, Yaksha, Yakshis, Chaumukhastambhas, Sahasrakut Jinabimba, Dvarapalas and Manastambhas.
The most important Jaina temples of this period are Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi, Charantimatha at Aihole and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmesvar. The Brahma Jinalaya built by Attimabbe represents a second phase of Chalukyan art for it not only represents a progress in architectural work but also uses finer grained schist instead of the usual granite. The latter has influenced its masonry, size and sculpture. The tample is highly imposing with dimentions of 93 ft. and 35 ft. It has a sikhara 42 ft. in height, which rise,s somewhat steeply in three storeys looking like a Chaturasra sikhara, with a sukhanasi. The mukhamandapa is spacious having entrances in east, south and north. The sculptures of Brahma and Padmavati are noteworthy.
The Charanti matha group at Aihole was built before 1119 A.D. on which date king Vikarmaditya VI through his subordinate Kesavayya Setti made arrangements for certain repairs, additions and endowments. The main temple of this group is dedicated to Mahavira. The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa. It has a sikhara of the southern vimana type. There is also storeyed temple over the garbhagriha, a typical character of a basadi. The exterior wall is plain without any sculptures. The highly ornate doorways, drooping eaves and cornices of the corridor are highly elaborate and ornate. On the architraves of the front doors of the corridor are carved twenty four Tirthankaras, which add to the beauty of this temple.
Of the two Jaina temples at Lakshmesvar the more famous is Sankha Jinalaya which consists of a garbhagriha, a large ardhamandapa, larger mahamandapa and a rangamandapa. The rangamandapa has three entrances to south, north and west. It has a chaturmukha structure in dim unitive model, each of which carries three figures. it has a rekhanagara sikhara. The unique feature of this temple is the Sahasrakuta Jinabimba in minute form. There is a manastambha in front of the temple. Even though the temple is in ruins and has been renovated later, it presents a rare grandeur and stands as a testimony to the interest of the Kalyana Chalukyas in Jaina a.rchitecture. The other Jaina temple in this place is a trikuta dedicated to Adinatha.
The other Jaina temples of the Kalyana Chalukya period include Parsvanatha basadi at Udri, Bandalike, Parsvanatha basadi at Koppala, a ruined basadi at Halasi, Naminatha basadi at Terdal, a ruined basadi within the fort at Belgaum, Parsvanatha basadi at Ammangi in Belgaum district, a ruined basadi at Malkhed and another basadi at Sedam in Gulburga district. Most of these are in ruins and are simpler in dimensions and designs as compared to the classical basadis found at Lakkundi and other two places. However, these constructions show the widespread popularity of Jaina architecture in the north Karnataka region during the Kalyana Chalukya period.
As the Hoysalas did not have a permanent footing in north Karnataka due to the opposition of the Sevunas of Devagiri, there are no Hoysala monuments in this region. They are confined to southern Karnataka.
THE SEVUNA PERIODThe Sevunas of Devagiri ruled over most parts of north Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Tradition connects the Sevunas with Jainism. As evidenced by Nasikakalpa, Dridhaprahara one of the early king of this dynasty grew under the care of Chandraprabhasvamin and in recognition of this he named his capitgl Chandradityapura, after this Jaina saint. 31 Sevunadeva III was a devout Jaina. His Anjaneri inscription opens with an invocation to Pancha Parameshthis namely arhats, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus.32 Singhana II made a large number of grants to Jinalaya at Purikanagara for the worship of Parsvanatha and to the temple of Ananata Tirthankara. King Ramachandta made the grant of a village Hunisehalli for a Jinalaya. His Sarvadhikari is said to have built a basadi at the instance of his guru Jinabhattaraka. Apart from these epigraphical references, it is not possible to identify any of the Jaina temples built during the period.
VIJAYANAGARA PERIODIt is generally believed that Jainism began declining in Karnataka after the Hoysalas. With the establishment of the Vijayanagara empire, the accent was more on the Hinduism and obviously Jainism suffered a setback. Even numerically references to grants made to Jaina establishments become small in number epigraphically which also confirms the view that Jainism was loosing ground. This is amply demonstrated by the inscription of Bukka at Hampi, which tries to bring about a compromise between the Jainas and the Srivaishnavas. One of the representative Jaina temple at Hampi is the Ganagitti gudi built by Jinabhakta Irugappa Dandanayaka who was a minister under Harihara II, in 1385 A.D. The temple was dedicated to Kunthu tirthankara.
However, South Kanara and North Kanara became important centres of Jaina architecture during this period. Varanga, karkala, Mudabidre, Barakuru and other places became centres of Jaina art due to the patronage extended by Alupa kings of Tulunadu. This has been discussed in another paper, and hence we pass on to North Kanara district. The most important monument of the period in this district is the Chaturmukha basadi located at Gerusoppe. Though its builder is not known definitely, it is generally belieyed that queen Chennabhairadevi was responsible for the construction of this basadi. The entire basadi is built of greyish schist, popularly known as soapstone. It has a garbhagriha, in which four tirthankaras are kept who are facing the four directions. The garbhagriha has entrances on four sides and is a good example of Sarvatobhadra class. The tower has disappeared. There are many sculptures of tirthankaras, yakshas and yakshis which are of fine workmanship. The other temples in Gerusoppe are Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis. But they are small and do not compare well with the Chaturmukha basadi. However, the sculptures of these basad is are interesting.
The Chandranatha temple at Bhatkal is another structure of this period. Actually it is known as Jettappa Nayakana Chandranathesvara basadi. It consists of two blocks of buildings joined together by intervening porch in east and west. The western portion has two storeys. The interior is plain. The eastern portion serves as a porch to the temple. The garbhagriha has the sculptures of Rishabhanatha, Chandranatha and Mallinatha.
The Ratnatraya basadi at Bilgi is almost similar to the basadi at Bhatkal. But it is nirandhara. The three garbhagrihas have Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. There is a vide porch and a mukhamandapa which are plain. The pillars are not elegant at Haduvalli or Sangitapura there is a temple of Chandranatha. It is plain and has a flat roof. The sculptures of some Jinas are kept in the . The sculpture of Chandranatha is very elegant and show the Vijayanagara workmanship. However, the temple itself is not of high order. The metal images in this temple are of some interest. One of them identified as that of Rishabhanatha with gomukha Yaksha has an inscription of the Fourteenth century. Seventyone tirthankaras are represented on the prabhavali. There is another metal image of Padmavati of late date and shows the decadent style. Another stone sculpture of Padmavati also belongs to this style. After the seventeenth century, the construction of Jaina temples did not become artistic creations but served the religion. Thus the long tradition of Jaina monuments which perhaps started by the early centuries of the Christian era ended by the eighteenth century A.D. in north Karnataka.The above survey shows that Jaina architectural style developed side by side with other religions but imbibed certain qualities. Perhaps the architects and sculptors were common to all religions. The storyed garbhagriha is a special invention of the Jaina architects, as found in many Jaina temples. The Jainas did not have decoration or sculptures on outside walls but took care to use such decoration in a limited way within the structures. In the early period the temples of Mahavira were more popular but by about twelfth century other tirthankaras like Parsvanatha, Adinath and twentyfour tirthankaras became more popular. In the Vijayanagara period the construction of Chaturmukha basadis gained popularity. The presence of dvarapalakas also became popular from tenth century. The erection of Manastambha also seems to have come into existance from about the tenth century A.D. and later it became almost a general rule. Thus North Karnataka contributed richly to the development of Jaina architecture in Karnataka.
At the outset it is necessary to clarify that the division of Karnataka Into South and North is only for the sake of convenience. In this connection north Karnataka is taken as the area comprising the present Karnataka excluding the old Mysore State. The monuments in these districts have been considered in a chronological manner taking the dynasties also into consideration.
BEGINNERS:The origin of Jaina architecture in north Karnataka is still uncertain as the vestiges of the early period have not come down to us. Jaina structures contemporary to the sojourn of Bhadrabahu to Sravanbelgola have not been found here so far. Even the early historic excavations which exhibit Satavahana culture as at Vadagaon Madhavpur and Sannati have not yielded any antiquity or structure that can be associated with Jainism. However, it has to be noted that the antiquities and structures of the former site have yet to be studied in detail and the latter site is yet to be fully excavated. This leaves us with the Kadambas of Banavasi who were known to be patrons of Jainism as evidenced by their inscriptions.
KADAMBA PERIODThe existance of Jaina temples during the period of the Banavasi Kadambas is amply evidenced by their epigraphs. The earliest references to a grant by a Kadamba king to a Jaina saint is found in the Halasi copper plate of kakusthavarman.1 It mentions that the granted village Khatagrama belonged to arhanta. However, a reference to a Jain temple (Chaityalaya) is found in the Devagiri copper plate of Mrigesavarman.2 The insription states that Mrigesavarman gave a grant for the sammarjana, upalepana, archana and bhagnasamskara of the Chaityalaya located at Brihatparalur. Further he also donated for the enclosure of the Chaityalaya one nivartana of land. This clearly shows that the above Chaityalaya was big enough to have an enclosure also. In the Devagiri inscription of Vijaya Siva Mrigesavarman a reference is made to arhat sale where an image of Jinendra was kept. 3 Mrigesavarman's Halasi inscription of 8th regnal year states that the king built a Jinalaya in memory of his father in Palasika and granted lands to saints of Yapaniya, nirgrantha and kurchaka sangha.4 Ravivarma's eleventh regnal year inscription found at Halasi refers to a grant for the abhisheka of Jinendra.5 Obviously this refers to a, Jaina temple. Another inscription of the same king refers to the worship of Jinendra for which four nivartanas of land was granted .6
The famous Gudnapur inscription of Ravivarman is more explicit on this point.7 According to this inscription King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha, very' near the palace (rajavesma) and arranged for its worship by granting lands. At the same time he also gave grants to Kamajinalaya at Hakinipalli and Padmavati temple at Kalliligrama. Dr. B.R. Gopal who has edited this inscription has suggested that this Kamajinalaya is a temple for Bahubali, as Bahubali is described as Manmatha. If this is so, the tradition of erecting gommata sculptures goes back to the period of Kadambas and to sixth century A.D. itself. However, Dr. A. Sundara has discovered a sculpture of Rati and Manmatha at the same place. Whether this was the sculpture worshipped in the Kamajinalya cannot be ascertained. What is more important is the tradition of building Jaina temples for Manmatha and even Padmavati.
The Halasi inscription of Ravivarma refers to interesting information.8 It states that the income from the gifted village should be used for eight-day festival in Kartikamasa in the Jinalaya at Palasikanagara. It states at the end wherever Jinendra worship takes place properly, that place will prosper without any fear from enemies and the prowess of the king will improve. The Devagiri plates of prince Devavarma refers to gifts for the worship in the Chaityalaya and for the repairs of the Chaityalaya.9All the inscriptions referred to above mention gifts for worship and repair to Jaina temples. However, many of them refer to a Jaina temple at Halasi. The Jaina temple' now standing at Halasi can not go back to a period earlier than eleventh century A.D. Then the question is what happened to the basadis referred to in the inscriptions. Perhaps they might have been built by wood and obviously perished. A. Sundara's field work at Halasi throws very important light on this point.1O Very close to the Kallesvara temple at Halasi, he discovered an ancient site going back to megalithic and early historic periods. A large number of brick walls of the ancient period have been noticed by him in and around and abviously he thinks that this represents the Jaina temple built during the Kadamba period. Full scale excavations at Halasi and Gudnapur are bound to yield the brick temples of this early period. That would, show the contribution of the Kadambas of Banavasi to the Jaina architecture of Karnataka.
BADAMI CHALUKYAN PERIODAfter the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the early or Badami Chalukyan kings. Their contribution to architecture and sculpture is not only well known but unprecedented. Most kings of this powerful dynasty patronised Jainism also though they were the followere of Vedic Hinduism. This is attested to by many inscriptions including that of the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, composed by the famous poet Ravikirti. The Jaina architectural beginnings made earlier by the Kadambas of Banavasi, crystalised into better structures in stone during the early Chalukyan period. As they used stone as the medium of their architecture, they have come down to us in good numbers.
The Chalukyas of Badami ate known for their rock cut temples as well as structural temples. At Badami there are four rock cut temples belonging to Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina faiths. Incidentally this is an eloquent testimony to the religious tolerance of the kings and the people during the period. The fourth cave is the Jaina cave dedicated to Adinatha Tirthankara. He is seated on the lion pedestal, reclining slightly on the smooth cushion. There is a triple umbrella (mukkode) over his head in relief. There are two Chamaradharis attending on the Tirthankara. On the left wall is a standing sculpture of Suparsvanatha with a seven hooded snake over him. To his right is a Yakshi holding a Chatra; to the left is a Yaksha sitting. On the opposite wall is the sculpture of Bahubali intertwined with creepers. In the inner mandapa on both sides are found two sculptures of Mahavira. In addition there are sculptures of twenty eight Jinas. The whole cave is 31 ft. wide and the depth is 16 ft. The entire composition is very elegant.
Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. It has an open mandapa and a Sabhamandapa. In the garbhgriha is the sculpture of Mahavira in Padmasana. On the sides are yaksha and yakshi standing. In the open mandapa are found high relief sculptures of Parsvanatha and Bahubali. However, this cave is not as refined and elegant as that of Badami.
Now we may refer to the structural temples built by the Chalukayas of Badami. The following are noteworthy among them. They are - Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole; the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar; during the period of Kirtivarman II. Kaliyamma built a temple at Annigeri; the Jinalaya at Hallur; the Jinalaya built by Dharmagamunda at Adur in Hangal taluk. The Meguti Jinendralaya was built in 634 A. D. by Ravikirti The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala and a mukhamandapa perhaps a later addition. There is a narrow pradakshinapatha around the garbhagriha. In the garbhagriha attached to the wall is the sculpture of Mahavira. In the antarala was a fine sculpture of Yakshi Ambika sitting in ardha lalitasana. Over the garbhagriha is another garbhagriha which also has a sculpture of Tirthankara. The adhisthana has miniature decorations.
The Sankha Jinalaya at Lakshmesvar is dedicated to Neminatha. Sendraka Durgasakti, a feudatory of Pulakesi II is said to have given gifts to this temple.u It is possible that it may be earlier or atleast contemporary to the Meguti temple. Many other inscriptions show that this was an important Jaina temple during the period. an inscription of Vinayaditya dated 686 A.D. refers to a grant to Jaina acharya of Devagana and mulasangha.12 Another epigraph of the time of Vijayaditya dated 729 A. D. mentions a grant to Niravadya Pandita who was to house pupil of Sri PUjyapada.13 Still another inscription of the time of Vikramaditya II dated 734 A. D. mentions gifts to Sveta Jinalaya.14
The Jain temple at Hallur has garbhagriha, antarala, and rectanular Sabhamandap. The garbhagriha has an upper storey and is similar to Meguti temple. The Sabhamandapa is bigger than garbhagriha and antarala and has a seperate mukhamandapa which is in ruins. Thus it shows a more developed architectural feature. The outer walls of the Sabhamandapa has low relief sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras. Thus the Chalukyas of Badami contributed in ample measure to the development of Jaina temple architecture and laid firm foundations for further development during the Rashtrakuta period.
RASHTRAKUTA PERIODAltekar ,characterises the Rastrakuta period as the golden age of Jainsim in Karnataka. This is amply demonstrated by a large number of Jaina epigraphs and also generous grants to Jaina temples. Amoghavarsha I used to consider himself purified by the very remembrance of his guru Jinasenacharya.15 He is also described as a follower of Syadvada.16 He had appointed the famous Jaina saint Gunabhadra as the teacher for his son Krishna.17 Krishna gave liberal donations to the Jaina temple at Mulgund. Indra IV was a devoted Jaina and he died committing Sallekhana.18 Many of the Rashtrakuta feudatories like Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism, From all these evidences Altekar estimates that atleast one third of the total population of the Deccan during the period were Jains.19
The Jaina monuments of the Rashrakuta period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmesvar, Koppala, Bankur, in the present day karnataka and at Ellora in Maharastra which was included in the Rastrakuta empire, The jaina temple at Pattadakal consists of a garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa, The garbhgriha door jambh has a fine makara torana, Opposite walls of antarala have Devakoshthas to house Yaksha and Yakshis, The sabhamandapa is square and has four pillars in the centre, The mukhamanadapa has been provided with Kakshasanas, The garbhagriha has a dvitala Nagara sikhara, it has another garbhagriha on the first floor like the Meguti temple, The outer walls in the western and northern sides have Jina sculptures which confirm that this is a Jaina temple, It is believed that this temple was built either during the time of Amoghavarsha I (814-874 A.D.) or Krishna I (c. 770 A.D.). From the stylistic features ninth century A,D, seems' to be reasonable for this temple.
The Jaina basadi at Konnur in Dharwad district was built during the period of Amoghavarsha I, by Bankesa in 860 A.D, It has a garbhagriha, antarala, sabhamandapa and a ruined mukhmandapa, The unique feature of this temple is the star shaped gabhagriha, which later became a unique feature of the Hoysala temples in southern Karnataka- There are three niches .in the garbhagriha which is also rare, The antarala has two pillars while the Sabhamandapa has twelve pillars, The latter also has two stone Jalandhras, Th.e mukhamandapa is reached through flight of steps.
The Jaina temple at Naregal in Ron taluk of Dharwad district was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. (Now it is referred to as Narayana temple), It is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka, It has a sikhara of Dravida vimana type over the garbhagriha, Acutally it is a trikuta, The main garbhagriha of this temple was meant for a Jina, and is square, The other two garbhagriha are rectangular, and have rectangular pedestals from wall to wall with twenty-four holes indicating that both of them were meant for establishing twenty-four Tirthankara sculptures, This is also a unique feature of this basadi. This became common in the eleventh century A.D.
The Settavva temple at Aihole is another storeyed basadi. It is more elaborate in execution. It is also a trikuta. Besides it has three ardhamandapas and a common navaranga.
The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Unfortunately the original structure has been repaired often and henc.e it is difficult to know its original features. The garbhagriha has a fine seated Neminatha sculpture. Other sculptures found here are those of Parsvanatha, Dharanendra and Padmavati. Some more Jina sculptures are in the Sabhamandapa; but they seem to belong to later periods.
The basadi at Bankur in Gulburga district seems to belong to the end of the Rashrakuta period. There are many fine sculptures in this temple. Notable among them are Adinatha, Chandraprabha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Padmavati, high relief sculptures of twenty-four tirthankaras.
In addition to the above Jaina temples of the Rashtrakuta period many more are also found which are not properly documented. Outside the present Karnataka State, the Rastrakuta basadis are found at Ellora where there are three Jaina cave temples referred as Chota Kailas, Indrasabha and Jagannathasabha.
The Rashrakuta epigraphs supply evidence for the construction of many more Jaina temples which have not been properly located. Some important epigraphs may be noted below. In 875 A. D. Krishna II built a Jinendra bhavana at Savadatti.2O In 902 A. D. Pergada Bittayya built a basadi at Bandanike.21 During the period of Krishna II was built the Mahasrimanta basadi at Pennugunda. 22 In 925 A. D. Nagayya built a temple at Asundi when Chandraprabha bhattaraka of Dhora Jinalaya was the administrator.23 In 932 A. D., Chandavve built a basadi at Nandavara.24 In 964 A. D., a Ratta chief built Jayadhire Jinalaya at Kupana {modern Koppala).25 In 958 A. D. Jakki Sundari built a Jinalaya at Kakambal. 26
The above epigraphical references and the extant Jaina monuments prove that the Rashtrakuta period was a golden age from the point of view to Jaina architecture also. However, it has to be admitted that exploration of Rashtrakuta architecture in Karnataka has to be done more systematically. In this connection the good beginning made by S. Rajasekhara in identifying the possible Rashtrakuta monuments in Karnataka on the bas.is of stylistic evidences and epigraphs is worth laudable. 27 Further research is bound to yield more Rashtrakuta monuments including Jaina temples in Karnataka.
KALYANA CHALUKYA PERIODWith the decline of the Rashtrakutas, most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Though they are known to be Saivas, they built Jaina temples. Many kings of this dynasty also granted gifts to Jaina establishments and individual saints. The development of Kalamukhas on the one side and the Virasaivism of Basavanna on the other were making great progress in north Karnataka and naturally this did not give enough scope for Jainism to blossom as it did in the earlier Rashtrakuta period. Nevertheless, it flourished through the royal patronage and contributed its share in the development of architecture. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana is well known as the patron of the great Jaina poet Ranna. King Satyasraya had a Rajaguru Vimalachandrapanditadeva under whose feet the king is said to have learnt the tenets of Jaina dharma. Attimabbe, known as danachintamani is a well known personality of this period. She is said to have made one thousand copies of Ponna's Santi pur ana and distributed as Sastradana. She built a Jaina temple at Lakkundi to which the king provided a golden Kalasa.28 Somesvara's minister Santinatha persuaded Lakhma to build the Mallikamoda Santinatha basadi at Baligrama.29 All these show the existence of Jainism during the period as well as royal patronage.
The Chalukyas of Kalyana were great temple builders all over Karnataka and they brought out new development in various components of temple. This was adopted to the Jaina temples built by them. This is amptly brought out by K.V. Soundararajan when he states" ….the Jaina temple building efforts went through more or less the same stages of growth and development as the Brahmanical, Jainism nevertheless maintained its entity by taking recourse to certain iconographic specializations which called for a distinctive layout. In surface treatment again, the Jaina temples eschewed all ostentatiously carved richi1ess on the exterior wall or fabric of the temple but were not averse to an extravagant display of ornamentation and figure work in the interior". 30 These distinctive features are found in the Jaina temples built by the Kalyana. Chalukyas at Lakkundi and other places. They generally consist of a garbhagriha, antarala, navaranga and mukhamandapa. Usually they do not have sculptyres on the outer walls. In the navaranga pillars are found with small sculptures. The sculptures generally consist of Bahubali, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, other Tirthankaras, Yaksha, Yakshis, Chaumukhastambhas, Sahasrakut Jinabimba, Dvarapalas and Manastambhas.
The most important Jaina temples of this period are Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi, Charantimatha at Aihole and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmesvar. The Brahma Jinalaya built by Attimabbe represents a second phase of Chalukyan art for it not only represents a progress in architectural work but also uses finer grained schist instead of the usual granite. The latter has influenced its masonry, size and sculpture. The tample is highly imposing with dimentions of 93 ft. and 35 ft. It has a sikhara 42 ft. in height, which rise,s somewhat steeply in three storeys looking like a Chaturasra sikhara, with a sukhanasi. The mukhamandapa is spacious having entrances in east, south and north. The sculptures of Brahma and Padmavati are noteworthy.
The Charanti matha group at Aihole was built before 1119 A.D. on which date king Vikarmaditya VI through his subordinate Kesavayya Setti made arrangements for certain repairs, additions and endowments. The main temple of this group is dedicated to Mahavira. The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa. It has a sikhara of the southern vimana type. There is also storeyed temple over the garbhagriha, a typical character of a basadi. The exterior wall is plain without any sculptures. The highly ornate doorways, drooping eaves and cornices of the corridor are highly elaborate and ornate. On the architraves of the front doors of the corridor are carved twenty four Tirthankaras, which add to the beauty of this temple.
Of the two Jaina temples at Lakshmesvar the more famous is Sankha Jinalaya which consists of a garbhagriha, a large ardhamandapa, larger mahamandapa and a rangamandapa. The rangamandapa has three entrances to south, north and west. It has a chaturmukha structure in dim unitive model, each of which carries three figures. it has a rekhanagara sikhara. The unique feature of this temple is the Sahasrakuta Jinabimba in minute form. There is a manastambha in front of the temple. Even though the temple is in ruins and has been renovated later, it presents a rare grandeur and stands as a testimony to the interest of the Kalyana Chalukyas in Jaina a.rchitecture. The other Jaina temple in this place is a trikuta dedicated to Adinatha.
The other Jaina temples of the Kalyana Chalukya period include Parsvanatha basadi at Udri, Bandalike, Parsvanatha basadi at Koppala, a ruined basadi at Halasi, Naminatha basadi at Terdal, a ruined basadi within the fort at Belgaum, Parsvanatha basadi at Ammangi in Belgaum district, a ruined basadi at Malkhed and another basadi at Sedam in Gulburga district. Most of these are in ruins and are simpler in dimensions and designs as compared to the classical basadis found at Lakkundi and other two places. However, these constructions show the widespread popularity of Jaina architecture in the north Karnataka region during the Kalyana Chalukya period.
As the Hoysalas did not have a permanent footing in north Karnataka due to the opposition of the Sevunas of Devagiri, there are no Hoysala monuments in this region. They are confined to southern Karnataka.
THE SEVUNA PERIODThe Sevunas of Devagiri ruled over most parts of north Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Tradition connects the Sevunas with Jainism. As evidenced by Nasikakalpa, Dridhaprahara one of the early king of this dynasty grew under the care of Chandraprabhasvamin and in recognition of this he named his capitgl Chandradityapura, after this Jaina saint. 31 Sevunadeva III was a devout Jaina. His Anjaneri inscription opens with an invocation to Pancha Parameshthis namely arhats, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus.32 Singhana II made a large number of grants to Jinalaya at Purikanagara for the worship of Parsvanatha and to the temple of Ananata Tirthankara. King Ramachandta made the grant of a village Hunisehalli for a Jinalaya. His Sarvadhikari is said to have built a basadi at the instance of his guru Jinabhattaraka. Apart from these epigraphical references, it is not possible to identify any of the Jaina temples built during the period.
VIJAYANAGARA PERIODIt is generally believed that Jainism began declining in Karnataka after the Hoysalas. With the establishment of the Vijayanagara empire, the accent was more on the Hinduism and obviously Jainism suffered a setback. Even numerically references to grants made to Jaina establishments become small in number epigraphically which also confirms the view that Jainism was loosing ground. This is amply demonstrated by the inscription of Bukka at Hampi, which tries to bring about a compromise between the Jainas and the Srivaishnavas. One of the representative Jaina temple at Hampi is the Ganagitti gudi built by Jinabhakta Irugappa Dandanayaka who was a minister under Harihara II, in 1385 A.D. The temple was dedicated to Kunthu tirthankara.
However, South Kanara and North Kanara became important centres of Jaina architecture during this period. Varanga, karkala, Mudabidre, Barakuru and other places became centres of Jaina art due to the patronage extended by Alupa kings of Tulunadu. This has been discussed in another paper, and hence we pass on to North Kanara district. The most important monument of the period in this district is the Chaturmukha basadi located at Gerusoppe. Though its builder is not known definitely, it is generally belieyed that queen Chennabhairadevi was responsible for the construction of this basadi. The entire basadi is built of greyish schist, popularly known as soapstone. It has a garbhagriha, in which four tirthankaras are kept who are facing the four directions. The garbhagriha has entrances on four sides and is a good example of Sarvatobhadra class. The tower has disappeared. There are many sculptures of tirthankaras, yakshas and yakshis which are of fine workmanship. The other temples in Gerusoppe are Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis. But they are small and do not compare well with the Chaturmukha basadi. However, the sculptures of these basad is are interesting.
The Chandranatha temple at Bhatkal is another structure of this period. Actually it is known as Jettappa Nayakana Chandranathesvara basadi. It consists of two blocks of buildings joined together by intervening porch in east and west. The western portion has two storeys. The interior is plain. The eastern portion serves as a porch to the temple. The garbhagriha has the sculptures of Rishabhanatha, Chandranatha and Mallinatha.
The Ratnatraya basadi at Bilgi is almost similar to the basadi at Bhatkal. But it is nirandhara. The three garbhagrihas have Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. There is a vide porch and a mukhamandapa which are plain. The pillars are not elegant at Haduvalli or Sangitapura there is a temple of Chandranatha. It is plain and has a flat roof. The sculptures of some Jinas are kept in the . The sculpture of Chandranatha is very elegant and show the Vijayanagara workmanship. However, the temple itself is not of high order. The metal images in this temple are of some interest. One of them identified as that of Rishabhanatha with gomukha Yaksha has an inscription of the Fourteenth century. Seventyone tirthankaras are represented on the prabhavali. There is another metal image of Padmavati of late date and shows the decadent style. Another stone sculpture of Padmavati also belongs to this style. After the seventeenth century, the construction of Jaina temples did not become artistic creations but served the religion. Thus the long tradition of Jaina monuments which perhaps started by the early centuries of the Christian era ended by the eighteenth century A.D. in north Karnataka.The above survey shows that Jaina architectural style developed side by side with other religions but imbibed certain qualities. Perhaps the architects and sculptors were common to all religions. The storyed garbhagriha is a special invention of the Jaina architects, as found in many Jaina temples. The Jainas did not have decoration or sculptures on outside walls but took care to use such decoration in a limited way within the structures. In the early period the temples of Mahavira were more popular but by about twelfth century other tirthankaras like Parsvanatha, Adinath and twentyfour tirthankaras became more popular. In the Vijayanagara period the construction of Chaturmukha basadis gained popularity. The presence of dvarapalakas also became popular from tenth century. The erection of Manastambha also seems to have come into existance from about the tenth century A.D. and later it became almost a general rule. Thus North Karnataka contributed richly to the development of Jaina architecture in Karnataka.
Jul 3, 2008
A Jaina Motif In Indian & Eastern Architecture
Mr. S. K. Saraswati
Logically and rationally it is not possible, nor desirable, to classify Indian architectural styles according to their religious affiliations. At the same time, however, it cannot be ignored that a few of the Indian religious systems developed some special forms or types of monuments which may be described to be distinctively their own For instance, one may cite the stupa and the caitya shrine each of which, as a form of architecture, is known to have intimate associations with Buddhists religious beliefs and usages. The Buddhists owed their inspiration for raising stupas to earlier pre-Buddhist practices. As a form of memorial the stupa was not known to the Jainas. But it is the Buddhists who particularly selected and adopted it to their own use and much of the development and elaboration of the design and form of the monument in course of time was, in a large measure, due to Buddhist patronage. It is not surprising, hence, that as a form of architecture the stupa, had acquired a special and almost exclusive Buddhist connotation. The caitya shrine is exclusively Buddhist in inspiration, the design and form being, to a great extent, determined by the needs and exigencies of that particular belief in the worship of the caitya which was almost universal in the early days of Buddhism. With the introduction of the image of the Master and the occupation of its rightful place in the beliefs and rituals of his followers, the caitya shrine as a form of monument went out of use, the few experiments, to utilised it to new usage having proved unsatisfactory and unsuitable.
Jainism is still a living faith in India and Jaina patronage has played a not insignificant part in the history of Indian art and culture. So far as architecture is concerned, the Jainas are known to have been responsible for the creation of important groups of temples in different parts of India, some of which (the Dilwara group, for instance) are justly regarded as outstanding creation. But Jainism, or for the matter of that Buddhism or Brahmanism, cannot be said to have developed a particular style of temple exclusively its own. A survey of Jaina temples in different parts of India would tend to show that basically and fundamentally they have affiliations with the style or types prevailing in the regions and periods in which they were erected. The few Jaina temples in South India have clear affinities with the Dravida temples style of the south. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Central Indian expression of the Nagara temple style. The Dilwara temples, as much as other Jaina temples in the west, are intimately related to the Western movement of the Nagara style. It would be futile to separate the Jaina temples as a class apart from the monuments of other creeds. There are minor variations no doubt, due to the exigencies of the beliefs and rituals of Jainism; but such variations are not fundamental enough to affect their basical relation with the styles and types in regard to time and space.
A distinctive Jaina inconographic motif, however, seems to have been responsible for inspiring a rate type of Indian temple, a type that may be found to have significant reverberations in South East Asia. A four-faced image, usually known as Chaturmaukha or Caumuha , has been a very popular Jaina iconographic theme from fairly early times. Such and image has been described as Pratima Sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the Christian era. It takes of the shape of solid square obelisk with four images on its four faces or sides. The image depicted on the four face are usually those of the four Tirthankaras - Risabhnath (Adinatha), the first; Santinatha , the sixteenth; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third; and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth. Sometimes, the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces. This variation, however is immaterial. The name Sarvatobhadrika means 'pleasing' or 'auspicious' from all directions. It is important ot observe that the Jainas had conceived a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically expected to be approached from the four directions.
The sanctum cella (garbha-griha) is meant for the enshrinement of the image of a divinity, and as such is regarded as the holiest of the holies in the entire temple complex which, not infrequently, assumes extensive proportions. Almost invariably the garbha-griha consists of a square chamber with a single entrance facing the image installed inside. A sanctum with a single entrance generally suits the needs of worship according to the rituals and beliefs of the different Indian creeds, the majority of the images of the various pantheons having been conceived for confrontation by the worshippers from one direction only, i.e., from front. But the four-faced votive object of the Jaina, as the motif itself suggests, requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with four entrances on four faces is the most suitable design for the proper installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the natural and logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive image conceived by the Jainas.
In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations in the descriptions of the type in the different texts. All texts, however, are agreed that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple admirably suits the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika , and it is not without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design seem to go together, one being complementary to the other.
The number of Jaina sarvatobhdrika images of the early centuries of the Christian era is not small. From Eastern India have been discovered also a fairly substantial number of such images of the early mediaeval epoch. Unfortunately, the shrines in which such images were installed have disappeared. As already observed, the name sarvatobhadra for the architectural design appears to have significant relations with the term sarvatobhadra used for the iconographic motif. The linking together of the two seems to be not without interest. In this situation it is possible to presume that the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e., a shrine without entrances, in the four cardinal directions, in order to suit the needs of the four-faced votive object that they had evolved. In a manner this supposition finds confirmation in a number of monolithic votive templets from Eastern India, now in the State Archaeological Gallery of West Bengal. They belong to the early mediaeval period and each of them shows four figures of four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubic block topped by a graceful curvilinear shkhara , thereby reproducing, in all probability, a shrine with four entrances confronting the dour figures of the block installed within a cubic sanctum cella. Such a shrine, i.e., one with four entrances might also have been employed for installation of a pratima sarvatobhadrika of the early Christian epoch. The type ;of shrine with four doors on four cardinal faces appears, thus, to have evolved by the Jainas for the proper installation of their sarvatobhadrika images at a fairly early date. The Yugadisvara temple at Ranakpur of the fifteenth centuries may be recognised to be the most elaborate expression of the simple four-entranced cubical shrine of the Jainas of the early phases.
Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in two votive templets, done in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze from Jhewari (Chittagong District ), both in Bangla Desh. Each of them is in the form of shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty ). These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduces the design of a four entranced shrine.
It will be useful to mention in this context a few early temples of Burma consecrated for Buddhist usage. They repeat not only the iconographic motif of Sarvatobhadrika image but the architectural design of Sarvatobhadra temples in a clear and explicit manner. In such shrines the iconographic motif in each case occupies the position of the altar. The earliest of these temples seems to have been the Lemeythna at Hmawza (Thayetkhettaya - old Srikshetra). The exact date of this structure is not known. Some scholars would assign it to a date between the fifth and the eighth century with the inherent probability that it might have been the earliest of the extant monuments in this old city. In spite of its battered state it is possible to determine the fundamental features of its composition,. It is seen to be a cubical shrine with four entrances on its four main sides, each entrance being further strengthened by two projecting buttresses flanking the sides. In the interior one finds a solid masonry obelisk of square shape occupying the middle of the sanctuary. This obelisk is faced on four sides by four sculptured figures, each in axial with the entrance doorway on each of the sides. This obelisk shoots high up to roof and the space between the obelisk and the walls forms a continuous gallery around. It is not impossible to find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of iconographic motif of the sarvatobhadrika.
The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the Burmese Buddhists for a long time and several notable monuments of this order are known to have been erected in the classical phase of Burmese art and architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda temple at Pagan is one of the most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A. D. 1091. In course of time there had been elaborations of the design in respect both of ground plan and elevation. But such elaborations did, in no way, affect the fundamental concept of the iconographic motif or of the architectural form. Hence in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces, one finds the square masonary pile in the centre with four colossal figure of the Buddha in recessed niches on its four sides. The altar is surrounded by two concentric galleries communicating with each other and with the approach vestibules and grilled windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting one another. Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the niches containing the sculptures , by projecting dormer windows provided in the superstructure on the four sides. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha images.
In Burman the type is known to have been in use also in respect of Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple, which is the only Brahmanical temple, now existing, among the hundred of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. It is said to have been built in A. D. 931 by king Nyaung U. It consists of a nearly square sanctum cella accommodating in the centre a solid brick column with four large brick images, possibly of manifestations of Vishnu (as may be known from the sculptures of his incarnations on the outer walls), on its four sides. Such brick columns with sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be recognised, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or sarvatobhdrika images of the Jainas.
Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due to their comparatively fair state of preservation it is possible to recognise easily the correspondences that they bear to the iconographic motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In the Indian subcontinent at least, two Buddhist temples of the early mediaeval phase may be suggested to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi District, Bangla Desh) that was once the great Somapura Vihara founded by Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the beginning of the ninth. In the earlier days there was a jaina establishment at or near the site, as is known from a copperplate grant dated in (Gupta) year 159 (A.D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple had many unusual features including elevation in successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant ot he scope of this paper. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere that the shrine of this colossal monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a square column-like pile with projected chambers , one on each of its four sides, the whole surrounded by a circumambulatory gallery. There is every possibility that on each of the four sides of the pile an image was installed in the projected chamber against pile behind thus repeating the motif of the sarvatobhadrika images of the Jainas. In this instance the ideas might have been derived from a similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. The above suggestion gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. A similar complex, in fragments, has been laid bare on the site, known as Salban Vihara, on the Mainamati hills, the complex that can be identified as the Vihara of Bhavadeva, fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva dynasty of Eaxt Bengal. The remains of the temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the above plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati temple also one finds a square brick column with four projected chambers on its four sides. The above suggestion about the Paharpur temple that it had images on four faces of the square pile in the projected chambers seems o be supported here also by the find of a fragment of a bronze image of the Buddha in one of its projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction of these two shrines gains credibility from the analogy of the Pagan temples noticed above. The Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for imitation by the Buddhists.
In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the worship of Vishnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been followed, and in this context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not infrequently several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing the four cardinal directions. But in such concepts the iconic theme in each case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach only from the front. Such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be considered, hence, to the parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to the Vaikuntha aspect of Vishnu and Brahma. The first of the Brahmanical triad, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic description. The treatment in each case in frontal and the few temples that are known to have been dedicated to their worship are each known to have one door only in front. The Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, one of the most important enshrining and image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu has an entrance in front only. The Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides, three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or confrontation from all sides.
In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognised in the iconographic motif of Shiva-Linga with four faces or four sides commonly known under the designation of Caturmukha Linga or Caturmukha Mahadeva. The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in accordance with the cylindrical from of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of Caturmukha Linga are known from fairly early times and it is difficult to say which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced Linga, is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A Linga with its plain and cylindrical shape or a Caturmukha Linga allows confrontation from four sides and the logical from of a shrine of this order may be expected to have the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known to have been medicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each being invariably the Linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha Mahadeva temple at Nachna Kuthara (Madhya Pradesh) with a Caturmukha Linga as the votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings in four sides; but only that on the east has been treated as the principal entrance to the shrine. The Aparajita-priccha (circa twelfth century; G.O.S No. CXVI) describes a Siva temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra sarvatobhadras-caturdvarah Sivalayah , chapter 134, verse ). As already observed, this is the logical form that a Linga shrine is expected to have and this to have been recognised by the followers of Saivism rather late in the history of this creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha temple, as we see it today, at Varanasi are each seen to have four doors on four cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aprajita-prccha. They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a Caturmukha Linga in the sanctum cella. Some late mediaeval Siva temples in Bengal are also known to have four doors, following the sarvatobhadra scheme. The description in the Aprajita-paccha of a Siva temple as sarvatobhadra seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility that in a Siva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the particular architectural motif conceived and evolved, as observed above, under Jaina patronage.
This particularly Jaina motif in architecture, as is apparent from the above survey, is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faith, namely Buddhism and Brahmanism , and territories outside. This survey, more or less in outline illustrates the need for a fuller investigation in this regard.
Jainism is still a living faith in India and Jaina patronage has played a not insignificant part in the history of Indian art and culture. So far as architecture is concerned, the Jainas are known to have been responsible for the creation of important groups of temples in different parts of India, some of which (the Dilwara group, for instance) are justly regarded as outstanding creation. But Jainism, or for the matter of that Buddhism or Brahmanism, cannot be said to have developed a particular style of temple exclusively its own. A survey of Jaina temples in different parts of India would tend to show that basically and fundamentally they have affiliations with the style or types prevailing in the regions and periods in which they were erected. The few Jaina temples in South India have clear affinities with the Dravida temples style of the south. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Central Indian expression of the Nagara temple style. The Dilwara temples, as much as other Jaina temples in the west, are intimately related to the Western movement of the Nagara style. It would be futile to separate the Jaina temples as a class apart from the monuments of other creeds. There are minor variations no doubt, due to the exigencies of the beliefs and rituals of Jainism; but such variations are not fundamental enough to affect their basical relation with the styles and types in regard to time and space.
A distinctive Jaina inconographic motif, however, seems to have been responsible for inspiring a rate type of Indian temple, a type that may be found to have significant reverberations in South East Asia. A four-faced image, usually known as Chaturmaukha or Caumuha , has been a very popular Jaina iconographic theme from fairly early times. Such and image has been described as Pratima Sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the Christian era. It takes of the shape of solid square obelisk with four images on its four faces or sides. The image depicted on the four face are usually those of the four Tirthankaras - Risabhnath (Adinatha), the first; Santinatha , the sixteenth; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third; and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth. Sometimes, the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces. This variation, however is immaterial. The name Sarvatobhadrika means 'pleasing' or 'auspicious' from all directions. It is important ot observe that the Jainas had conceived a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically expected to be approached from the four directions.
The sanctum cella (garbha-griha) is meant for the enshrinement of the image of a divinity, and as such is regarded as the holiest of the holies in the entire temple complex which, not infrequently, assumes extensive proportions. Almost invariably the garbha-griha consists of a square chamber with a single entrance facing the image installed inside. A sanctum with a single entrance generally suits the needs of worship according to the rituals and beliefs of the different Indian creeds, the majority of the images of the various pantheons having been conceived for confrontation by the worshippers from one direction only, i.e., from front. But the four-faced votive object of the Jaina, as the motif itself suggests, requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with four entrances on four faces is the most suitable design for the proper installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the natural and logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive image conceived by the Jainas.
In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations in the descriptions of the type in the different texts. All texts, however, are agreed that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple admirably suits the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika , and it is not without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design seem to go together, one being complementary to the other.
The number of Jaina sarvatobhdrika images of the early centuries of the Christian era is not small. From Eastern India have been discovered also a fairly substantial number of such images of the early mediaeval epoch. Unfortunately, the shrines in which such images were installed have disappeared. As already observed, the name sarvatobhadra for the architectural design appears to have significant relations with the term sarvatobhadra used for the iconographic motif. The linking together of the two seems to be not without interest. In this situation it is possible to presume that the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e., a shrine without entrances, in the four cardinal directions, in order to suit the needs of the four-faced votive object that they had evolved. In a manner this supposition finds confirmation in a number of monolithic votive templets from Eastern India, now in the State Archaeological Gallery of West Bengal. They belong to the early mediaeval period and each of them shows four figures of four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubic block topped by a graceful curvilinear shkhara , thereby reproducing, in all probability, a shrine with four entrances confronting the dour figures of the block installed within a cubic sanctum cella. Such a shrine, i.e., one with four entrances might also have been employed for installation of a pratima sarvatobhadrika of the early Christian epoch. The type ;of shrine with four doors on four cardinal faces appears, thus, to have evolved by the Jainas for the proper installation of their sarvatobhadrika images at a fairly early date. The Yugadisvara temple at Ranakpur of the fifteenth centuries may be recognised to be the most elaborate expression of the simple four-entranced cubical shrine of the Jainas of the early phases.
Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in two votive templets, done in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze from Jhewari (Chittagong District ), both in Bangla Desh. Each of them is in the form of shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty ). These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduces the design of a four entranced shrine.
It will be useful to mention in this context a few early temples of Burma consecrated for Buddhist usage. They repeat not only the iconographic motif of Sarvatobhadrika image but the architectural design of Sarvatobhadra temples in a clear and explicit manner. In such shrines the iconographic motif in each case occupies the position of the altar. The earliest of these temples seems to have been the Lemeythna at Hmawza (Thayetkhettaya - old Srikshetra). The exact date of this structure is not known. Some scholars would assign it to a date between the fifth and the eighth century with the inherent probability that it might have been the earliest of the extant monuments in this old city. In spite of its battered state it is possible to determine the fundamental features of its composition,. It is seen to be a cubical shrine with four entrances on its four main sides, each entrance being further strengthened by two projecting buttresses flanking the sides. In the interior one finds a solid masonry obelisk of square shape occupying the middle of the sanctuary. This obelisk is faced on four sides by four sculptured figures, each in axial with the entrance doorway on each of the sides. This obelisk shoots high up to roof and the space between the obelisk and the walls forms a continuous gallery around. It is not impossible to find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of iconographic motif of the sarvatobhadrika.
The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the Burmese Buddhists for a long time and several notable monuments of this order are known to have been erected in the classical phase of Burmese art and architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda temple at Pagan is one of the most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A. D. 1091. In course of time there had been elaborations of the design in respect both of ground plan and elevation. But such elaborations did, in no way, affect the fundamental concept of the iconographic motif or of the architectural form. Hence in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces, one finds the square masonary pile in the centre with four colossal figure of the Buddha in recessed niches on its four sides. The altar is surrounded by two concentric galleries communicating with each other and with the approach vestibules and grilled windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting one another. Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the niches containing the sculptures , by projecting dormer windows provided in the superstructure on the four sides. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha images.
In Burman the type is known to have been in use also in respect of Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple, which is the only Brahmanical temple, now existing, among the hundred of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. It is said to have been built in A. D. 931 by king Nyaung U. It consists of a nearly square sanctum cella accommodating in the centre a solid brick column with four large brick images, possibly of manifestations of Vishnu (as may be known from the sculptures of his incarnations on the outer walls), on its four sides. Such brick columns with sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be recognised, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or sarvatobhdrika images of the Jainas.
Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due to their comparatively fair state of preservation it is possible to recognise easily the correspondences that they bear to the iconographic motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In the Indian subcontinent at least, two Buddhist temples of the early mediaeval phase may be suggested to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi District, Bangla Desh) that was once the great Somapura Vihara founded by Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the beginning of the ninth. In the earlier days there was a jaina establishment at or near the site, as is known from a copperplate grant dated in (Gupta) year 159 (A.D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple had many unusual features including elevation in successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant ot he scope of this paper. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere that the shrine of this colossal monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a square column-like pile with projected chambers , one on each of its four sides, the whole surrounded by a circumambulatory gallery. There is every possibility that on each of the four sides of the pile an image was installed in the projected chamber against pile behind thus repeating the motif of the sarvatobhadrika images of the Jainas. In this instance the ideas might have been derived from a similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. The above suggestion gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. A similar complex, in fragments, has been laid bare on the site, known as Salban Vihara, on the Mainamati hills, the complex that can be identified as the Vihara of Bhavadeva, fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva dynasty of Eaxt Bengal. The remains of the temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the above plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati temple also one finds a square brick column with four projected chambers on its four sides. The above suggestion about the Paharpur temple that it had images on four faces of the square pile in the projected chambers seems o be supported here also by the find of a fragment of a bronze image of the Buddha in one of its projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction of these two shrines gains credibility from the analogy of the Pagan temples noticed above. The Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for imitation by the Buddhists.
In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the worship of Vishnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been followed, and in this context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not infrequently several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing the four cardinal directions. But in such concepts the iconic theme in each case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach only from the front. Such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be considered, hence, to the parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to the Vaikuntha aspect of Vishnu and Brahma. The first of the Brahmanical triad, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic description. The treatment in each case in frontal and the few temples that are known to have been dedicated to their worship are each known to have one door only in front. The Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, one of the most important enshrining and image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu has an entrance in front only. The Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides, three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or confrontation from all sides.
In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognised in the iconographic motif of Shiva-Linga with four faces or four sides commonly known under the designation of Caturmukha Linga or Caturmukha Mahadeva. The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in accordance with the cylindrical from of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of Caturmukha Linga are known from fairly early times and it is difficult to say which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced Linga, is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A Linga with its plain and cylindrical shape or a Caturmukha Linga allows confrontation from four sides and the logical from of a shrine of this order may be expected to have the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known to have been medicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each being invariably the Linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha Mahadeva temple at Nachna Kuthara (Madhya Pradesh) with a Caturmukha Linga as the votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings in four sides; but only that on the east has been treated as the principal entrance to the shrine. The Aparajita-priccha (circa twelfth century; G.O.S No. CXVI) describes a Siva temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra sarvatobhadras-caturdvarah Sivalayah , chapter 134, verse ). As already observed, this is the logical form that a Linga shrine is expected to have and this to have been recognised by the followers of Saivism rather late in the history of this creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha temple, as we see it today, at Varanasi are each seen to have four doors on four cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aprajita-prccha. They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a Caturmukha Linga in the sanctum cella. Some late mediaeval Siva temples in Bengal are also known to have four doors, following the sarvatobhadra scheme. The description in the Aprajita-paccha of a Siva temple as sarvatobhadra seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility that in a Siva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the particular architectural motif conceived and evolved, as observed above, under Jaina patronage.
This particularly Jaina motif in architecture, as is apparent from the above survey, is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faith, namely Buddhism and Brahmanism , and territories outside. This survey, more or less in outline illustrates the need for a fuller investigation in this regard.
May 4, 2008
Logic behind Building JainTemple Cities on Mountains
By Unknown
Why were Jainas so enthusiastic about building "Temple Cities" on the mountains? For one thing, it would be because of their worship toward mountains. From ancient times, mountain worship has been popular in India, and people liked to design temples in the image of a holy mountain as a residence of Gods. It is represented by Mt. Meru, which is said to be the center of the universe, or Mt. Kailasa ,Astapadh Tirth, which is believed to be the residence of First Tirthankar. Besides these legendary mountains, Jainas made much of going on a pilgrimage to actual holy mountains and regarded it as a pious deed. Thus they had built temples at such holy places or "tirthas" (*2) from ancient times.
For another, it was in order to escape from attacks by heathens. Ever since the attacks by Mahmud of Ghazna in the 11th century, Muslims had destroyed a lot of temples of Jainism. If we regard these attacks as religious persecution, we might be rather wide of the mark. In general, Islam had been tolerant toward other religions. However, it is usual for winners of wars to plunder the land that they have conquered by military force, and in actual terms, Muslims needed to secure places for their religious worship. Therefore they dismantled the stone temples situated in the places they had vanquished and reused the components to build new mosques.
As mosques are basically pillared halls, Jaina temples which had a lot of pillars were quite suitable. The mosques in Ajmer, Delhi, and Ahmadabad are typical examples of it. Since Islam strictly prohibits idolatry, they scraped off only engravings of idols on pillars and beams in these mosques. Nevertheless, as the basic formation and domical ceilings of Indic manner still remain, these pieces of architecture clearly show the features of the Jaina and Hindu temples.
As a result most large Jaina temples in Northern India were destroyed, so old temples no longer exist in major cities. Jainas thus chose places deep in the mountains to construct new temples in expectation that there was a small possibility of destruction. However, invasions by the Kharji Dynasty of Delhi and other Muslims had reached Mt. Shatrunjaya, and the temples had been often demolished.
It was not until the 16th century when Akbar of the Mughal Dynasty implemented a tolerant policy with other religions in India that peacetime was finally realized. The reason why each tuk had been surrounded like a stronghold was to defend itself from those attacks. ------
( from Architectural Magazine " at ", 1993 - 1994, Takeo Kamiya)
Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim mosques of North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain temples. ---Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University
Jainism as per kerala
Though there is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around Palakkad in Kerala.
Why were Jainas so enthusiastic about building "Temple Cities" on the mountains? For one thing, it would be because of their worship toward mountains. From ancient times, mountain worship has been popular in India, and people liked to design temples in the image of a holy mountain as a residence of Gods. It is represented by Mt. Meru, which is said to be the center of the universe, or Mt. Kailasa ,Astapadh Tirth, which is believed to be the residence of First Tirthankar. Besides these legendary mountains, Jainas made much of going on a pilgrimage to actual holy mountains and regarded it as a pious deed. Thus they had built temples at such holy places or "tirthas" (*2) from ancient times.
For another, it was in order to escape from attacks by heathens. Ever since the attacks by Mahmud of Ghazna in the 11th century, Muslims had destroyed a lot of temples of Jainism. If we regard these attacks as religious persecution, we might be rather wide of the mark. In general, Islam had been tolerant toward other religions. However, it is usual for winners of wars to plunder the land that they have conquered by military force, and in actual terms, Muslims needed to secure places for their religious worship. Therefore they dismantled the stone temples situated in the places they had vanquished and reused the components to build new mosques.
As mosques are basically pillared halls, Jaina temples which had a lot of pillars were quite suitable. The mosques in Ajmer, Delhi, and Ahmadabad are typical examples of it. Since Islam strictly prohibits idolatry, they scraped off only engravings of idols on pillars and beams in these mosques. Nevertheless, as the basic formation and domical ceilings of Indic manner still remain, these pieces of architecture clearly show the features of the Jaina and Hindu temples.
As a result most large Jaina temples in Northern India were destroyed, so old temples no longer exist in major cities. Jainas thus chose places deep in the mountains to construct new temples in expectation that there was a small possibility of destruction. However, invasions by the Kharji Dynasty of Delhi and other Muslims had reached Mt. Shatrunjaya, and the temples had been often demolished.
It was not until the 16th century when Akbar of the Mughal Dynasty implemented a tolerant policy with other religions in India that peacetime was finally realized. The reason why each tuk had been surrounded like a stronghold was to defend itself from those attacks. ------
( from Architectural Magazine " at ", 1993 - 1994, Takeo Kamiya)
Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim mosques of North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain temples. ---Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University
Jainism as per kerala
Though there is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around Palakkad in Kerala.
Nov 24, 2007
Contributions of Jainism to Indian culture
By Dr. K. C. Jain
(i) Stüpas and Monasteries :
Jaina architecture is concerned withStüpas, monasteries, caves, temples and Mänastambhas. The Ävaáyaka Chürîi of Jinadäsa (C. 676 A.D.) mentions the Stüpa dedcated to the 20th Tïrthaõkara Munisuvrata at Vaiáälï, but its remains have not yet been discovered. The Stüpa of Mathura dedicated to the seventh Tïrthankara, Supärávanätha is known to have been built by the gods Devanirmita10. This shows that it was very old, and its origin was forgotten. Some ascribed it to the third century B.D. while others to the sixth century B.C. In two votive tablets, the figure of this Stüpa is found engraved. Another Jaina Stüpa of Mathura is of Kushäîa period. From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'NigaûasaVihära Dïpe11 inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The excavations 12 conducted at a site called Vaââamanu, named after Vardhamäna in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihära and Samprativihära are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name Samprati-Vihära proves tha Samprati was a historical figure. At Paharpur in Bengal was found a copper plate inscription of the fifth century A.D. which mentions the name of the Äcärya Guhanandi of Pañchastüpänvaya and Jaina Vihära (monastery) of Vaûa Gohäli. In excavation also, the remains of the monastery were discovered.
(ii) Caves : There are caves and caverns associated with Jainism in the southern Districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the third or second century B.C. engraved on them record mostly the dedication of abodes for Jaina monks. The caves on the Udaigiri and the Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa belong to the second or the first century B.C. as known from the inscription of Khäravela. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District ofAndhra Pradesh. The Son-Bhaîâära cave at Räjgôha in Bihar is assigned to the first century B.C. At Pale in Poona District of Maharashtra, there is a cave with an inscription of the first century B.C. At Pabhosa, near Allahabad, there are two caves with an inscription of the second century B.C. which records their dedication by Ashädhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kaáyapïya Arhats. At Junagarh,(Saurashtra) near Bava Phyära Maûha are a group of Jaina caves of the second century A.D. The Udayagiri cave No. 25 in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the fifth century A.D. The Bhadrabähu cave on Chandragiri hill at Shravana Belagolä is note worthy in the south. The Sittanaväsala cave in Tamilnadu belongs to the third century A.D. The Badami cave of the seventh century A.D. is also worth mentioning. There are the Jaina caves at Ahihole also. The Jaina caves namely Chotä Kailäsa, Indra Säbhä and Jagannätha Sabhä are the finest from the artistic point of view. The pillars and walls are exquisitely carved. The Jaina caves at Gwalior or the 15th century belong to theTomara period.
(iii) Temple Architecture : The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e .third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushäîa period, i.e. the second century A.D.
From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the Nägara, the Drävida, and the Väsara are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nägara style are cruci form plan and curvili near Áikhara and it was prevalent in the region between theHimalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dräviâa style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower, and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed.
Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage o fthe ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gangas, the Chälukyas, the Räshûrakütas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Áantaras in the South. "The Meghuti Jaina temple built in 634 A.D. during the reign of Pulakeáin II by Ravikïrti is said to be the oldest temple of Drävida style in the south. The important temple of this style is in Paûûakäla. The Jaina temples at Huvancha and Gudaunear Tirthahalli, Lakundi in Dharwad District, Jinanathapura, Halebid, Ganigitti, Tirumalalai, Tiruparuli, Kundarama,Tiruppanayura, "Mudabidri, etc. are noteworthy. Jaina temples built in Kerala region13 between ninth and eleventh centuries were of two main types - rock-cut and structural temples. Temples were also built in the Vijayanagara empire. These temples give an idea of the Drävida style of Jaina architecture of the south.
The Jaina temples of the Nägara style were built in large number in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Jaina temples of Devagarh, Gyaraspur, Badoh and Büâhï Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh belong to the Pratïhära period. The pillars, gateways and the walls of the temples are finely carved. The Mälädevï temple of Gyäraspur, which is partly rock-cut and partly structural, consists of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. The Jaina temple of Badoh with twenty-five cells was built between the ninth and twelfth century A.D. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Chandella period. These are lofty edifices without any enclosure and erected on a high platform terrace. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples specially doorways, pillar architraves and ceilings are richly carved with figures and intricate geometrical and floral designs. During theParamära period, Bhümija style became popular. The two Jaina templesof 11-12th century A.D. at Un are of this style. The carvings of these temples are of high order. At Bhojapur, near Bhopal, there are remains of the Jaina temple. The Jaina temples of Sonagiri,Muktagiri, Kundalpur and Mandu were built during the Muslim period.
In Rajasthan, the Jaina temple built in the eighth century A.D. at Osia during the reign of Vatsaräja is the oldest, and it consists of a sanctum, a closed hall and an open porch. it is famous for its carvings. The Jaina shrines at Kumbharia are noteworthy as some of them contain beautiful ceiling slabs. The two celebrated Jaina temples of Abu are the best examples not only of Jaina but Indian architecture. One dedicated to Ädinätha was built by a minister named Vimala in 1031 A.D. while the other was constructed by Tejapäla in1230 A.D. These temples are famous for the minutely carved decoration of the ceilings, pillars, doorways and niches. The Dhai din käJhoãpra seems to be originally a Jaina temple constructed by the Chauhäna ruler. Vigraharäja. The Singhïjï Kä Mandira at Sanganer belongs to the tenth century A.D. because there is an inscription of954 A.D. on the bandaraväla of the main shrine in the second hall of the temple. The Jaina temple of Áäntinätha at Jhalarapatan was built in 1046 A.D. by Säha Pïpä. The shrine and Áikhara of this temple are old. The Jaina temple of Lodorva near Jaisalmer is of the eleventh century A.D., and it's toraîadvära is elaborately carved and richly decorated. The Jaina temple of Räîakapur built in 1440 A.D. is the most complicated and extensive temple. There are twenty domes supported by about 1420 pillars and no two pillars are alike. Besides twelve in the central Áikhara, there are eighty-six cells of veryvaried form and size surrounding the interior, and all their facades more or less adorned with sculptures. The great Jaina temples of Chintamani Pärávanätha, Ôishabha, Áantinätha, Sambhavanätha andMahävïra in Jaisalmer constructed one after another in a period between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries are excellent. Profuse ornamentations in the shape of foliage, flowers birds and human figures were used in decorating every part of the pillar, arch,lintel or bracket of these temples. There are several old temples atÁatrunjaya and Girnar which throw significant light on the gradual development of art.
(iv) Mänasthambhas : The exquisite Jaina Mänastambhas are found atÁravaîa Belagolä Muâubidre and Kärkala. The Mänastambha of Devagadh is artistic. The Jaina tower known as Kïrtistambha of the 15 thcentury ar Chitor is 80 feet in height, and is composed of eight storeys. It is full of decorations.
(i) Stüpas and Monasteries :
Jaina architecture is concerned withStüpas, monasteries, caves, temples and Mänastambhas. The Ävaáyaka Chürîi of Jinadäsa (C. 676 A.D.) mentions the Stüpa dedcated to the 20th Tïrthaõkara Munisuvrata at Vaiáälï, but its remains have not yet been discovered. The Stüpa of Mathura dedicated to the seventh Tïrthankara, Supärávanätha is known to have been built by the gods Devanirmita10. This shows that it was very old, and its origin was forgotten. Some ascribed it to the third century B.D. while others to the sixth century B.C. In two votive tablets, the figure of this Stüpa is found engraved. Another Jaina Stüpa of Mathura is of Kushäîa period. From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'NigaûasaVihära Dïpe11 inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The excavations 12 conducted at a site called Vaââamanu, named after Vardhamäna in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihära and Samprativihära are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name Samprati-Vihära proves tha Samprati was a historical figure. At Paharpur in Bengal was found a copper plate inscription of the fifth century A.D. which mentions the name of the Äcärya Guhanandi of Pañchastüpänvaya and Jaina Vihära (monastery) of Vaûa Gohäli. In excavation also, the remains of the monastery were discovered.
(ii) Caves : There are caves and caverns associated with Jainism in the southern Districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the third or second century B.C. engraved on them record mostly the dedication of abodes for Jaina monks. The caves on the Udaigiri and the Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa belong to the second or the first century B.C. as known from the inscription of Khäravela. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District ofAndhra Pradesh. The Son-Bhaîâära cave at Räjgôha in Bihar is assigned to the first century B.C. At Pale in Poona District of Maharashtra, there is a cave with an inscription of the first century B.C. At Pabhosa, near Allahabad, there are two caves with an inscription of the second century B.C. which records their dedication by Ashädhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kaáyapïya Arhats. At Junagarh,(Saurashtra) near Bava Phyära Maûha are a group of Jaina caves of the second century A.D. The Udayagiri cave No. 25 in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the fifth century A.D. The Bhadrabähu cave on Chandragiri hill at Shravana Belagolä is note worthy in the south. The Sittanaväsala cave in Tamilnadu belongs to the third century A.D. The Badami cave of the seventh century A.D. is also worth mentioning. There are the Jaina caves at Ahihole also. The Jaina caves namely Chotä Kailäsa, Indra Säbhä and Jagannätha Sabhä are the finest from the artistic point of view. The pillars and walls are exquisitely carved. The Jaina caves at Gwalior or the 15th century belong to theTomara period.
(iii) Temple Architecture : The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e .third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushäîa period, i.e. the second century A.D.
From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the Nägara, the Drävida, and the Väsara are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nägara style are cruci form plan and curvili near Áikhara and it was prevalent in the region between theHimalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dräviâa style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower, and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed.
Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage o fthe ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gangas, the Chälukyas, the Räshûrakütas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Áantaras in the South. "The Meghuti Jaina temple built in 634 A.D. during the reign of Pulakeáin II by Ravikïrti is said to be the oldest temple of Drävida style in the south. The important temple of this style is in Paûûakäla. The Jaina temples at Huvancha and Gudaunear Tirthahalli, Lakundi in Dharwad District, Jinanathapura, Halebid, Ganigitti, Tirumalalai, Tiruparuli, Kundarama,Tiruppanayura, "Mudabidri, etc. are noteworthy. Jaina temples built in Kerala region13 between ninth and eleventh centuries were of two main types - rock-cut and structural temples. Temples were also built in the Vijayanagara empire. These temples give an idea of the Drävida style of Jaina architecture of the south.
The Jaina temples of the Nägara style were built in large number in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Jaina temples of Devagarh, Gyaraspur, Badoh and Büâhï Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh belong to the Pratïhära period. The pillars, gateways and the walls of the temples are finely carved. The Mälädevï temple of Gyäraspur, which is partly rock-cut and partly structural, consists of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. The Jaina temple of Badoh with twenty-five cells was built between the ninth and twelfth century A.D. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Chandella period. These are lofty edifices without any enclosure and erected on a high platform terrace. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples specially doorways, pillar architraves and ceilings are richly carved with figures and intricate geometrical and floral designs. During theParamära period, Bhümija style became popular. The two Jaina templesof 11-12th century A.D. at Un are of this style. The carvings of these temples are of high order. At Bhojapur, near Bhopal, there are remains of the Jaina temple. The Jaina temples of Sonagiri,Muktagiri, Kundalpur and Mandu were built during the Muslim period.
In Rajasthan, the Jaina temple built in the eighth century A.D. at Osia during the reign of Vatsaräja is the oldest, and it consists of a sanctum, a closed hall and an open porch. it is famous for its carvings. The Jaina shrines at Kumbharia are noteworthy as some of them contain beautiful ceiling slabs. The two celebrated Jaina temples of Abu are the best examples not only of Jaina but Indian architecture. One dedicated to Ädinätha was built by a minister named Vimala in 1031 A.D. while the other was constructed by Tejapäla in1230 A.D. These temples are famous for the minutely carved decoration of the ceilings, pillars, doorways and niches. The Dhai din käJhoãpra seems to be originally a Jaina temple constructed by the Chauhäna ruler. Vigraharäja. The Singhïjï Kä Mandira at Sanganer belongs to the tenth century A.D. because there is an inscription of954 A.D. on the bandaraväla of the main shrine in the second hall of the temple. The Jaina temple of Áäntinätha at Jhalarapatan was built in 1046 A.D. by Säha Pïpä. The shrine and Áikhara of this temple are old. The Jaina temple of Lodorva near Jaisalmer is of the eleventh century A.D., and it's toraîadvära is elaborately carved and richly decorated. The Jaina temple of Räîakapur built in 1440 A.D. is the most complicated and extensive temple. There are twenty domes supported by about 1420 pillars and no two pillars are alike. Besides twelve in the central Áikhara, there are eighty-six cells of veryvaried form and size surrounding the interior, and all their facades more or less adorned with sculptures. The great Jaina temples of Chintamani Pärávanätha, Ôishabha, Áantinätha, Sambhavanätha andMahävïra in Jaisalmer constructed one after another in a period between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries are excellent. Profuse ornamentations in the shape of foliage, flowers birds and human figures were used in decorating every part of the pillar, arch,lintel or bracket of these temples. There are several old temples atÁatrunjaya and Girnar which throw significant light on the gradual development of art.
(iv) Mänasthambhas : The exquisite Jaina Mänastambhas are found atÁravaîa Belagolä Muâubidre and Kärkala. The Mänastambha of Devagadh is artistic. The Jaina tower known as Kïrtistambha of the 15 thcentury ar Chitor is 80 feet in height, and is composed of eight storeys. It is full of decorations.
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