Jain Art and Architecture

By Dr. N. L. Jain

The Jainas could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest times. It has a religious orientation in its art in varied forms. Being predominatly idolators, they have good iconography and icon making art. They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood, stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could carve icons out of stones also. All icons have been made according to dimensions with attractive meditating faces of victors expressing the idea of successful withdrawl from worldly life. There are many idols of international accreditation-one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh state need special mention for their magnificience and heights. The icons are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days with high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the last quarter of this century.

Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum, one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir), hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks. The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art. They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.

The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious field.

Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still continuing gracefully.

Wall paintings are also found in many temples and caves representing religious stories, tenets and prominent incidents of Victors lives, mother's dreams, legendary scenes, miniature painting and palm leaf or paper decoration (manuscripts) which has also been an art of respect. The exquisite samples of this art are found in many Jain manuscrpit libraries. Wood carving has also been an art. It seems some of these arts have been declining considerably.

The art and architecture of the Jainas have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. They also glorify the devotees too internally with psychological bliss. Jainas realised that true art represents the spirit of true religion. Besides its religious value, it has been taken as a treasure of the country. That is why many Jain art centers have become tourist attractions now.

JAINA MONUMENTS IN NORTH KARNATAKA

Dr. A. V. Narasimha Murthy

At the outset it is necessary to clarify that the division of Karnataka Into South and North is only for the sake of convenience. In this connection north Karnataka is taken as the area comprising the present Karnataka excluding the old Mysore State. The monuments in these districts have been considered in a chronological manner taking the dynasties also into consideration.
BEGINNERS:The origin of Jaina architecture in north Karnataka is still uncertain as the vestiges of the early period have not come down to us. Jaina structures contemporary to the sojourn of Bhadrabahu to Sravanbelgola have not been found here so far. Even the early historic excavations which exhibit Satavahana culture as at Vadagaon Madhavpur and Sannati have not yielded any antiquity or structure that can be associated with Jainism. However, it has to be noted that the antiquities and structures of the former site have yet to be studied in detail and the latter site is yet to be fully excavated. This leaves us with the Kadambas of Banavasi who were known to be patrons of Jainism as evidenced by their inscriptions.

KADAMBA PERIODThe existance of Jaina temples during the period of the Banavasi Kadambas is amply evidenced by their epigraphs. The earliest references to a grant by a Kadamba king to a Jaina saint is found in the Halasi copper plate of kakusthavarman.1 It mentions that the granted village Khatagrama belonged to arhanta. However, a reference to a Jain temple (Chaityalaya) is found in the Devagiri copper plate of Mrigesavarman.2 The insription states that Mrigesavarman gave a grant for the sammarjana, upalepana, archana and bhagnasamskara of the Chaityalaya located at Brihatparalur. Further he also donated for the enclosure of the Chaityalaya one nivartana of land. This clearly shows that the above Chaityalaya was big enough to have an enclosure also. In the Devagiri inscription of Vijaya Siva Mrigesavarman a reference is made to arhat sale where an image of Jinendra was kept. 3 Mrigesavarman's Halasi inscription of 8th regnal year states that the king built a Jinalaya in memory of his father in Palasika and granted lands to saints of Yapaniya, nirgrantha and kurchaka sangha.4 Ravivarma's eleventh regnal year inscription found at Halasi refers to a grant for the abhisheka of Jinendra.5 Obviously this refers to a, Jaina temple. Another inscription of the same king refers to the worship of Jinendra for which four nivartanas of land was granted .6

The famous Gudnapur inscription of Ravivarman is more explicit on this point.7 According to this inscription King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha, very' near the palace (rajavesma) and arranged for its worship by granting lands. At the same time he also gave grants to Kamajinalaya at Hakinipalli and Padmavati temple at Kalliligrama. Dr. B.R. Gopal who has edited this inscription has suggested that this Kamajinalaya is a temple for Bahubali, as Bahubali is described as Manmatha. If this is so, the tradition of erecting gommata sculptures goes back to the period of Kadambas and to sixth century A.D. itself. However, Dr. A. Sundara has discovered a sculpture of Rati and Manmatha at the same place. Whether this was the sculpture worshipped in the Kamajinalya cannot be ascertained. What is more important is the tradition of building Jaina temples for Manmatha and even Padmavati.

The Halasi inscription of Ravivarma refers to interesting information.8 It states that the income from the gifted village should be used for eight-day festival in Kartikamasa in the Jinalaya at Palasikanagara. It states at the end wherever Jinendra worship takes place properly, that place will prosper without any fear from enemies and the prowess of the king will improve. The Devagiri plates of prince Devavarma refers to gifts for the worship in the Chaityalaya and for the repairs of the Chaityalaya.9All the inscriptions referred to above mention gifts for worship and repair to Jaina temples. However, many of them refer to a Jaina temple at Halasi. The Jaina temple' now standing at Halasi can not go back to a period earlier than eleventh century A.D. Then the question is what happened to the basadis referred to in the inscriptions. Perhaps they might have been built by wood and obviously perished. A. Sundara's field work at Halasi throws very important light on this point.1O Very close to the Kallesvara temple at Halasi, he discovered an ancient site going back to megalithic and early historic periods. A large number of brick walls of the ancient period have been noticed by him in and around and abviously he thinks that this represents the Jaina temple built during the Kadamba period. Full scale excavations at Halasi and Gudnapur are bound to yield the brick temples of this early period. That would, show the contribution of the Kadambas of Banavasi to the Jaina architecture of Karnataka.
BADAMI CHALUKYAN PERIODAfter the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the early or Badami Chalukyan kings. Their contribution to architecture and sculpture is not only well known but unprecedented. Most kings of this powerful dynasty patronised Jainism also though they were the followere of Vedic Hinduism. This is attested to by many inscriptions including that of the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, composed by the famous poet Ravikirti. The Jaina architectural beginnings made earlier by the Kadambas of Banavasi, crystalised into better structures in stone during the early Chalukyan period. As they used stone as the medium of their architecture, they have come down to us in good numbers.

The Chalukyas of Badami ate known for their rock cut temples as well as structural temples. At Badami there are four rock cut temples belonging to Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina faiths. Incidentally this is an eloquent testimony to the religious tolerance of the kings and the people during the period. The fourth cave is the Jaina cave dedicated to Adinatha Tirthankara. He is seated on the lion pedestal, reclining slightly on the smooth cushion. There is a triple umbrella (mukkode) over his head in relief. There are two Chamaradharis attending on the Tirthankara. On the left wall is a standing sculpture of Suparsvanatha with a seven hooded snake over him. To his right is a Yakshi holding a Chatra; to the left is a Yaksha sitting. On the opposite wall is the sculpture of Bahubali intertwined with creepers. In the inner mandapa on both sides are found two sculptures of Mahavira. In addition there are sculptures of twenty eight Jinas. The whole cave is 31 ft. wide and the depth is 16 ft. The entire composition is very elegant.

Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. It has an open mandapa and a Sabhamandapa. In the garbhgriha is the sculpture of Mahavira in Padmasana. On the sides are yaksha and yakshi standing. In the open mandapa are found high relief sculptures of Parsvanatha and Bahubali. However, this cave is not as refined and elegant as that of Badami.

Now we may refer to the structural temples built by the Chalukayas of Badami. The following are noteworthy among them. They are - Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole; the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar; during the period of Kirtivarman II. Kaliyamma built a temple at Annigeri; the Jinalaya at Hallur; the Jinalaya built by Dharmagamunda at Adur in Hangal taluk. The Meguti Jinendralaya was built in 634 A. D. by Ravikirti The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala and a mukhamandapa perhaps a later addition. There is a narrow pradakshinapatha around the garbhagriha. In the garbhagriha attached to the wall is the sculpture of Mahavira. In the antarala was a fine sculpture of Yakshi Ambika sitting in ardha lalitasana. Over the garbhagriha is another garbhagriha which also has a sculpture of Tirthankara. The adhisthana has miniature decorations.

The Sankha Jinalaya at Lakshmesvar is dedicated to Neminatha. Sendraka Durgasakti, a feudatory of Pulakesi II is said to have given gifts to this temple.u It is possible that it may be earlier or atleast contemporary to the Meguti temple. Many other inscriptions show that this was an important Jaina temple during the period. an inscription of Vinayaditya dated 686 A.D. refers to a grant to Jaina acharya of Devagana and mulasangha.12 Another epigraph of the time of Vijayaditya dated 729 A. D. mentions a grant to Niravadya Pandita who was to house pupil of Sri PUjyapada.13 Still another inscription of the time of Vikramaditya II dated 734 A. D. mentions gifts to Sveta Jinalaya.14

The Jain temple at Hallur has garbhagriha, antarala, and rectanular Sabhamandap. The garbhagriha has an upper storey and is similar to Meguti temple. The Sabhamandapa is bigger than garbhagriha and antarala and has a seperate mukhamandapa which is in ruins. Thus it shows a more developed architectural feature. The outer walls of the Sabhamandapa has low relief sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras. Thus the Chalukyas of Badami contributed in ample measure to the development of Jaina temple architecture and laid firm foundations for further development during the Rashtrakuta period.

RASHTRAKUTA PERIODAltekar ,characterises the Rastrakuta period as the golden age of Jainsim in Karnataka. This is amply demonstrated by a large number of Jaina epigraphs and also generous grants to Jaina temples. Amoghavarsha I used to consider himself purified by the very remembrance of his guru Jinasenacharya.15 He is also described as a follower of Syadvada.16 He had appointed the famous Jaina saint Gunabhadra as the teacher for his son Krishna.17 Krishna gave liberal donations to the Jaina temple at Mulgund. Indra IV was a devoted Jaina and he died committing Sallekhana.18 Many of the Rashtrakuta feudatories like Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism, From all these evidences Altekar estimates that atleast one third of the total population of the Deccan during the period were Jains.19

The Jaina monuments of the Rashrakuta period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmesvar, Koppala, Bankur, in the present day karnataka and at Ellora in Maharastra which was included in the Rastrakuta empire, The jaina temple at Pattadakal consists of a garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa, The garbhgriha door jambh has a fine makara torana, Opposite walls of antarala have Devakoshthas to house Yaksha and Yakshis, The sabhamandapa is square and has four pillars in the centre, The mukhamanadapa has been provided with Kakshasanas, The garbhagriha has a dvitala Nagara sikhara, it has another garbhagriha on the first floor like the Meguti temple, The outer walls in the western and northern sides have Jina sculptures which confirm that this is a Jaina temple, It is believed that this temple was built either during the time of Amoghavarsha I (814-874 A.D.) or Krishna I (c. 770 A.D.). From the stylistic features ninth century A,D, seems' to be reasonable for this temple.
The Jaina basadi at Konnur in Dharwad district was built during the period of Amoghavarsha I, by Bankesa in 860 A.D, It has a garbhagriha, antarala, sabhamandapa and a ruined mukhmandapa, The unique feature of this temple is the star shaped gabhagriha, which later became a unique feature of the Hoysala temples in southern Karnataka- There are three niches .in the garbhagriha which is also rare, The antarala has two pillars while the Sabhamandapa has twelve pillars, The latter also has two stone Jalandhras, Th.e mukhamandapa is reached through flight of steps.

The Jaina temple at Naregal in Ron taluk of Dharwad district was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. (Now it is referred to as Narayana temple), It is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka, It has a sikhara of Dravida vimana type over the garbhagriha, Acutally it is a trikuta, The main garbhagriha of this temple was meant for a Jina, and is square, The other two garbhagriha are rectangular, and have rectangular pedestals from wall to wall with twenty-four holes indicating that both of them were meant for establishing twenty-four Tirthankara sculptures, This is also a unique feature of this basadi. This became common in the eleventh century A.D.

The Settavva temple at Aihole is another storeyed basadi. It is more elaborate in execution. It is also a trikuta. Besides it has three ardhamandapas and a common navaranga.

The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Unfortunately the original structure has been repaired often and henc.e it is difficult to know its original features. The garbhagriha has a fine seated Neminatha sculpture. Other sculptures found here are those of Parsvanatha, Dharanendra and Padmavati. Some more Jina sculptures are in the Sabhamandapa; but they seem to belong to later periods.

The basadi at Bankur in Gulburga district seems to belong to the end of the Rashrakuta period. There are many fine sculptures in this temple. Notable among them are Adinatha, Chandraprabha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Padmavati, high relief sculptures of twenty-four tirthankaras.

In addition to the above Jaina temples of the Rashtrakuta period many more are also found which are not properly documented. Outside the present Karnataka State, the Rastrakuta basadis are found at Ellora where there are three Jaina cave temples referred as Chota Kailas, Indrasabha and Jagannathasabha.

The Rashrakuta epigraphs supply evidence for the construction of many more Jaina temples which have not been properly located. Some important epigraphs may be noted below. In 875 A. D. Krishna II built a Jinendra bhavana at Savadatti.2O In 902 A. D. Pergada Bittayya built a basadi at Bandanike.21 During the period of Krishna II was built the Mahasrimanta basadi at Pennugunda. 22 In 925 A. D. Nagayya built a temple at Asundi when Chandraprabha bhattaraka of Dhora Jinalaya was the administrator.23 In 932 A. D., Chandavve built a basadi at Nandavara.24 In 964 A. D., a Ratta chief built Jayadhire Jinalaya at Kupana {modern Koppala).25 In 958 A. D. Jakki Sundari built a Jinalaya at Kakambal. 26

The above epigraphical references and the extant Jaina monuments prove that the Rashtrakuta period was a golden age from the point of view to Jaina architecture also. However, it has to be admitted that exploration of Rashtrakuta architecture in Karnataka has to be done more systematically. In this connection the good beginning made by S. Rajasekhara in identifying the possible Rashtrakuta monuments in Karnataka on the bas.is of stylistic evidences and epigraphs is worth laudable. 27 Further research is bound to yield more Rashtrakuta monuments including Jaina temples in Karnataka.

KALYANA CHALUKYA PERIODWith the decline of the Rashtrakutas, most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Though they are known to be Saivas, they built Jaina temples. Many kings of this dynasty also granted gifts to Jaina establishments and individual saints. The development of Kalamukhas on the one side and the Virasaivism of Basavanna on the other were making great progress in north Karnataka and naturally this did not give enough scope for Jainism to blossom as it did in the earlier Rashtrakuta period. Nevertheless, it flourished through the royal patronage and contributed its share in the development of architecture. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana is well known as the patron of the great Jaina poet Ranna. King Satyasraya had a Rajaguru Vimalachandrapanditadeva under whose feet the king is said to have learnt the tenets of Jaina dharma. Attimabbe, known as danachintamani is a well known personality of this period. She is said to have made one thousand copies of Ponna's Santi pur ana and distributed as Sastradana. She built a Jaina temple at Lakkundi to which the king provided a golden Kalasa.28 Somesvara's minister Santinatha persuaded Lakhma to build the Mallikamoda Santinatha basadi at Baligrama.29 All these show the existence of Jainism during the period as well as royal patronage.

The Chalukyas of Kalyana were great temple builders all over Karnataka and they brought out new development in various components of temple. This was adopted to the Jaina temples built by them. This is amptly brought out by K.V. Soundararajan when he states" ….the Jaina temple building efforts went through more or less the same stages of growth and development as the Brahmanical, Jainism nevertheless maintained its entity by taking recourse to certain iconographic specializations which called for a distinctive layout. In surface treatment again, the Jaina temples eschewed all ostentatiously carved richi1ess on the exterior wall or fabric of the temple but were not averse to an extravagant display of ornamentation and figure work in the interior". 30 These distinctive features are found in the Jaina temples built by the Kalyana. Chalukyas at Lakkundi and other places. They generally consist of a garbhagriha, antarala, navaranga and mukhamandapa. Usually they do not have sculptyres on the outer walls. In the navaranga pillars are found with small sculptures. The sculptures generally consist of Bahubali, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, other Tirthankaras, Yaksha, Yakshis, Chaumukhastambhas, Sahasrakut Jinabimba, Dvarapalas and Manastambhas.

The most important Jaina temples of this period are Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi, Charantimatha at Aihole and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmesvar. The Brahma Jinalaya built by Attimabbe represents a second phase of Chalukyan art for it not only represents a progress in architectural work but also uses finer grained schist instead of the usual granite. The latter has influenced its masonry, size and sculpture. The tample is highly imposing with dimentions of 93 ft. and 35 ft. It has a sikhara 42 ft. in height, which rise,s somewhat steeply in three storeys looking like a Chaturasra sikhara, with a sukhanasi. The mukhamandapa is spacious having entrances in east, south and north. The sculptures of Brahma and Padmavati are noteworthy.

The Charanti matha group at Aihole was built before 1119 A.D. on which date king Vikarmaditya VI through his subordinate Kesavayya Setti made arrangements for certain repairs, additions and endowments. The main temple of this group is dedicated to Mahavira. The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa. It has a sikhara of the southern vimana type. There is also storeyed temple over the garbhagriha, a typical character of a basadi. The exterior wall is plain without any sculptures. The highly ornate doorways, drooping eaves and cornices of the corridor are highly elaborate and ornate. On the architraves of the front doors of the corridor are carved twenty four Tirthankaras, which add to the beauty of this temple.

Of the two Jaina temples at Lakshmesvar the more famous is Sankha Jinalaya which consists of a garbhagriha, a large ardhamandapa, larger mahamandapa and a rangamandapa. The rangamandapa has three entrances to south, north and west. It has a chaturmukha structure in dim unitive model, each of which carries three figures. it has a rekhanagara sikhara. The unique feature of this temple is the Sahasrakuta Jinabimba in minute form. There is a manastambha in front of the temple. Even though the temple is in ruins and has been renovated later, it presents a rare grandeur and stands as a testimony to the interest of the Kalyana Chalukyas in Jaina a.rchitecture. The other Jaina temple in this place is a trikuta dedicated to Adinatha.
The other Jaina temples of the Kalyana Chalukya period include Parsvanatha basadi at Udri, Bandalike, Parsvanatha basadi at Koppala, a ruined basadi at Halasi, Naminatha basadi at Terdal, a ruined basadi within the fort at Belgaum, Parsvanatha basadi at Ammangi in Belgaum district, a ruined basadi at Malkhed and another basadi at Sedam in Gulburga district. Most of these are in ruins and are simpler in dimensions and designs as compared to the classical basadis found at Lakkundi and other two places. However, these constructions show the widespread popularity of Jaina architecture in the north Karnataka region during the Kalyana Chalukya period.

As the Hoysalas did not have a permanent footing in north Karnataka due to the opposition of the Sevunas of Devagiri, there are no Hoysala monuments in this region. They are confined to southern Karnataka.

THE SEVUNA PERIODThe Sevunas of Devagiri ruled over most parts of north Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Tradition connects the Sevunas with Jainism. As evidenced by Nasikakalpa, Dridhaprahara one of the early king of this dynasty grew under the care of Chandraprabhasvamin and in recognition of this he named his capitgl Chandradityapura, after this Jaina saint. 31 Sevunadeva III was a devout Jaina. His Anjaneri inscription opens with an invocation to Pancha Parameshthis namely arhats, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus.32 Singhana II made a large number of grants to Jinalaya at Purikanagara for the worship of Parsvanatha and to the temple of Ananata Tirthankara. King Ramachandta made the grant of a village Hunisehalli for a Jinalaya. His Sarvadhikari is said to have built a basadi at the instance of his guru Jinabhattaraka. Apart from these epigraphical references, it is not possible to identify any of the Jaina temples built during the period.
VIJAYANAGARA PERIODIt is generally believed that Jainism began declining in Karnataka after the Hoysalas. With the establishment of the Vijayanagara empire, the accent was more on the Hinduism and obviously Jainism suffered a setback. Even numerically references to grants made to Jaina establishments become small in number epigraphically which also confirms the view that Jainism was loosing ground. This is amply demonstrated by the inscription of Bukka at Hampi, which tries to bring about a compromise between the Jainas and the Srivaishnavas. One of the representative Jaina temple at Hampi is the Ganagitti gudi built by Jinabhakta Irugappa Dandanayaka who was a minister under Harihara II, in 1385 A.D. The temple was dedicated to Kunthu tirthankara.

However, South Kanara and North Kanara became important centres of Jaina architecture during this period. Varanga, karkala, Mudabidre, Barakuru and other places became centres of Jaina art due to the patronage extended by Alupa kings of Tulunadu. This has been discussed in another paper, and hence we pass on to North Kanara district. The most important monument of the period in this district is the Chaturmukha basadi located at Gerusoppe. Though its builder is not known definitely, it is generally belieyed that queen Chennabhairadevi was responsible for the construction of this basadi. The entire basadi is built of greyish schist, popularly known as soapstone. It has a garbhagriha, in which four tirthankaras are kept who are facing the four directions. The garbhagriha has entrances on four sides and is a good example of Sarvatobhadra class. The tower has disappeared. There are many sculptures of tirthankaras, yakshas and yakshis which are of fine workmanship. The other temples in Gerusoppe are Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis. But they are small and do not compare well with the Chaturmukha basadi. However, the sculptures of these basad is are interesting.
The Chandranatha temple at Bhatkal is another structure of this period. Actually it is known as Jettappa Nayakana Chandranathesvara basadi. It consists of two blocks of buildings joined together by intervening porch in east and west. The western portion has two storeys. The interior is plain. The eastern portion serves as a porch to the temple. The garbhagriha has the sculptures of Rishabhanatha, Chandranatha and Mallinatha.

The Ratnatraya basadi at Bilgi is almost similar to the basadi at Bhatkal. But it is nirandhara. The three garbhagrihas have Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. There is a vide porch and a mukhamandapa which are plain. The pillars are not elegant at Haduvalli or Sangitapura there is a temple of Chandranatha. It is plain and has a flat roof. The sculptures of some Jinas are kept in the . The sculpture of Chandranatha is very elegant and show the Vijayanagara workmanship. However, the temple itself is not of high order. The metal images in this temple are of some interest. One of them identified as that of Rishabhanatha with gomukha Yaksha has an inscription of the Fourteenth century. Seventyone tirthankaras are represented on the prabhavali. There is another metal image of Padmavati of late date and shows the decadent style. Another stone sculpture of Padmavati also belongs to this style. After the seventeenth century, the construction of Jaina temples did not become artistic creations but served the religion. Thus the long tradition of Jaina monuments which perhaps started by the early centuries of the Christian era ended by the eighteenth century A.D. in north Karnataka.The above survey shows that Jaina architectural style developed side by side with other religions but imbibed certain qualities. Perhaps the architects and sculptors were common to all religions. The storyed garbhagriha is a special invention of the Jaina architects, as found in many Jaina temples. The Jainas did not have decoration or sculptures on outside walls but took care to use such decoration in a limited way within the structures. In the early period the temples of Mahavira were more popular but by about twelfth century other tirthankaras like Parsvanatha, Adinath and twentyfour tirthankaras became more popular. In the Vijayanagara period the construction of Chaturmukha basadis gained popularity. The presence of dvarapalakas also became popular from tenth century. The erection of Manastambha also seems to have come into existance from about the tenth century A.D. and later it became almost a general rule. Thus North Karnataka contributed richly to the development of Jaina architecture in Karnataka.

A Jaina Motif In Indian & Eastern Architecture

Mr. S. K. Saraswati

Logically and rationally it is not possible, nor desirable, to classify Indian architectural styles according to their religious affiliations. At the same time, however, it cannot be ignored that a few of the Indian religious systems developed some special forms or types of monuments which may be described to be distinctively their own For instance, one may cite the stupa and the caitya shrine each of which, as a form of architecture, is known to have intimate associations with Buddhists religious beliefs and usages. The Buddhists owed their inspiration for raising stupas to earlier pre-Buddhist practices. As a form of memorial the stupa was not known to the Jainas. But it is the Buddhists who particularly selected and adopted it to their own use and much of the development and elaboration of the design and form of the monument in course of time was, in a large measure, due to Buddhist patronage. It is not surprising, hence, that as a form of architecture the stupa, had acquired a special and almost exclusive Buddhist connotation. The caitya shrine is exclusively Buddhist in inspiration, the design and form being, to a great extent, determined by the needs and exigencies of that particular belief in the worship of the caitya which was almost universal in the early days of Buddhism. With the introduction of the image of the Master and the occupation of its rightful place in the beliefs and rituals of his followers, the caitya shrine as a form of monument went out of use, the few experiments, to utilised it to new usage having proved unsatisfactory and unsuitable.

Jainism is still a living faith in India and Jaina patronage has played a not insignificant part in the history of Indian art and culture. So far as architecture is concerned, the Jainas are known to have been responsible for the creation of important groups of temples in different parts of India, some of which (the Dilwara group, for instance) are justly regarded as outstanding creation. But Jainism, or for the matter of that Buddhism or Brahmanism, cannot be said to have developed a particular style of temple exclusively its own. A survey of Jaina temples in different parts of India would tend to show that basically and fundamentally they have affiliations with the style or types prevailing in the regions and periods in which they were erected. The few Jaina temples in South India have clear affinities with the Dravida temples style of the south. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Central Indian expression of the Nagara temple style. The Dilwara temples, as much as other Jaina temples in the west, are intimately related to the Western movement of the Nagara style. It would be futile to separate the Jaina temples as a class apart from the monuments of other creeds. There are minor variations no doubt, due to the exigencies of the beliefs and rituals of Jainism; but such variations are not fundamental enough to affect their basical relation with the styles and types in regard to time and space.

A distinctive Jaina inconographic motif, however, seems to have been responsible for inspiring a rate type of Indian temple, a type that may be found to have significant reverberations in South East Asia. A four-faced image, usually known as Chaturmaukha or Caumuha , has been a very popular Jaina iconographic theme from fairly early times. Such and image has been described as Pratima Sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the Christian era. It takes of the shape of solid square obelisk with four images on its four faces or sides. The image depicted on the four face are usually those of the four Tirthankaras - Risabhnath (Adinatha), the first; Santinatha , the sixteenth; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third; and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth. Sometimes, the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces. This variation, however is immaterial. The name Sarvatobhadrika means 'pleasing' or 'auspicious' from all directions. It is important ot observe that the Jainas had conceived a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically expected to be approached from the four directions.

The sanctum cella (garbha-griha) is meant for the enshrinement of the image of a divinity, and as such is regarded as the holiest of the holies in the entire temple complex which, not infrequently, assumes extensive proportions. Almost invariably the garbha-griha consists of a square chamber with a single entrance facing the image installed inside. A sanctum with a single entrance generally suits the needs of worship according to the rituals and beliefs of the different Indian creeds, the majority of the images of the various pantheons having been conceived for confrontation by the worshippers from one direction only, i.e., from front. But the four-faced votive object of the Jaina, as the motif itself suggests, requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with four entrances on four faces is the most suitable design for the proper installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the natural and logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive image conceived by the Jainas.

In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations in the descriptions of the type in the different texts. All texts, however, are agreed that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple admirably suits the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika , and it is not without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design seem to go together, one being complementary to the other.

The number of Jaina sarvatobhdrika images of the early centuries of the Christian era is not small. From Eastern India have been discovered also a fairly substantial number of such images of the early mediaeval epoch. Unfortunately, the shrines in which such images were installed have disappeared. As already observed, the name sarvatobhadra for the architectural design appears to have significant relations with the term sarvatobhadra used for the iconographic motif. The linking together of the two seems to be not without interest. In this situation it is possible to presume that the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e., a shrine without entrances, in the four cardinal directions, in order to suit the needs of the four-faced votive object that they had evolved. In a manner this supposition finds confirmation in a number of monolithic votive templets from Eastern India, now in the State Archaeological Gallery of West Bengal. They belong to the early mediaeval period and each of them shows four figures of four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubic block topped by a graceful curvilinear shkhara , thereby reproducing, in all probability, a shrine with four entrances confronting the dour figures of the block installed within a cubic sanctum cella. Such a shrine, i.e., one with four entrances might also have been employed for installation of a pratima sarvatobhadrika of the early Christian epoch. The type ;of shrine with four doors on four cardinal faces appears, thus, to have evolved by the Jainas for the proper installation of their sarvatobhadrika images at a fairly early date. The Yugadisvara temple at Ranakpur of the fifteenth centuries may be recognised to be the most elaborate expression of the simple four-entranced cubical shrine of the Jainas of the early phases.

Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in two votive templets, done in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze from Jhewari (Chittagong District ), both in Bangla Desh. Each of them is in the form of shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty ). These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduces the design of a four entranced shrine.

It will be useful to mention in this context a few early temples of Burma consecrated for Buddhist usage. They repeat not only the iconographic motif of Sarvatobhadrika image but the architectural design of Sarvatobhadra temples in a clear and explicit manner. In such shrines the iconographic motif in each case occupies the position of the altar. The earliest of these temples seems to have been the Lemeythna at Hmawza (Thayetkhettaya - old Srikshetra). The exact date of this structure is not known. Some scholars would assign it to a date between the fifth and the eighth century with the inherent probability that it might have been the earliest of the extant monuments in this old city. In spite of its battered state it is possible to determine the fundamental features of its composition,. It is seen to be a cubical shrine with four entrances on its four main sides, each entrance being further strengthened by two projecting buttresses flanking the sides. In the interior one finds a solid masonry obelisk of square shape occupying the middle of the sanctuary. This obelisk is faced on four sides by four sculptured figures, each in axial with the entrance doorway on each of the sides. This obelisk shoots high up to roof and the space between the obelisk and the walls forms a continuous gallery around. It is not impossible to find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of iconographic motif of the sarvatobhadrika.

The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the Burmese Buddhists for a long time and several notable monuments of this order are known to have been erected in the classical phase of Burmese art and architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda temple at Pagan is one of the most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A. D. 1091. In course of time there had been elaborations of the design in respect both of ground plan and elevation. But such elaborations did, in no way, affect the fundamental concept of the iconographic motif or of the architectural form. Hence in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces, one finds the square masonary pile in the centre with four colossal figure of the Buddha in recessed niches on its four sides. The altar is surrounded by two concentric galleries communicating with each other and with the approach vestibules and grilled windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting one another. Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the niches containing the sculptures , by projecting dormer windows provided in the superstructure on the four sides. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha images.

In Burman the type is known to have been in use also in respect of Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple, which is the only Brahmanical temple, now existing, among the hundred of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. It is said to have been built in A. D. 931 by king Nyaung U. It consists of a nearly square sanctum cella accommodating in the centre a solid brick column with four large brick images, possibly of manifestations of Vishnu (as may be known from the sculptures of his incarnations on the outer walls), on its four sides. Such brick columns with sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be recognised, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or sarvatobhdrika images of the Jainas.

Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due to their comparatively fair state of preservation it is possible to recognise easily the correspondences that they bear to the iconographic motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In the Indian subcontinent at least, two Buddhist temples of the early mediaeval phase may be suggested to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi District, Bangla Desh) that was once the great Somapura Vihara founded by Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the beginning of the ninth. In the earlier days there was a jaina establishment at or near the site, as is known from a copperplate grant dated in (Gupta) year 159 (A.D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple had many unusual features including elevation in successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant ot he scope of this paper. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere that the shrine of this colossal monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a square column-like pile with projected chambers , one on each of its four sides, the whole surrounded by a circumambulatory gallery. There is every possibility that on each of the four sides of the pile an image was installed in the projected chamber against pile behind thus repeating the motif of the sarvatobhadrika images of the Jainas. In this instance the ideas might have been derived from a similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. The above suggestion gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. A similar complex, in fragments, has been laid bare on the site, known as Salban Vihara, on the Mainamati hills, the complex that can be identified as the Vihara of Bhavadeva, fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva dynasty of Eaxt Bengal. The remains of the temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the above plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati temple also one finds a square brick column with four projected chambers on its four sides. The above suggestion about the Paharpur temple that it had images on four faces of the square pile in the projected chambers seems o be supported here also by the find of a fragment of a bronze image of the Buddha in one of its projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction of these two shrines gains credibility from the analogy of the Pagan temples noticed above. The Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for imitation by the Buddhists.

In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the worship of Vishnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been followed, and in this context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not infrequently several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing the four cardinal directions. But in such concepts the iconic theme in each case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach only from the front. Such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be considered, hence, to the parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to the Vaikuntha aspect of Vishnu and Brahma. The first of the Brahmanical triad, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic description. The treatment in each case in frontal and the few temples that are known to have been dedicated to their worship are each known to have one door only in front. The Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, one of the most important enshrining and image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu has an entrance in front only. The Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides, three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or confrontation from all sides.

In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognised in the iconographic motif of Shiva-Linga with four faces or four sides commonly known under the designation of Caturmukha Linga or Caturmukha Mahadeva. The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in accordance with the cylindrical from of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of Caturmukha Linga are known from fairly early times and it is difficult to say which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced Linga, is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A Linga with its plain and cylindrical shape or a Caturmukha Linga allows confrontation from four sides and the logical from of a shrine of this order may be expected to have the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known to have been medicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each being invariably the Linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha Mahadeva temple at Nachna Kuthara (Madhya Pradesh) with a Caturmukha Linga as the votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings in four sides; but only that on the east has been treated as the principal entrance to the shrine. The Aparajita-priccha (circa twelfth century; G.O.S No. CXVI) describes a Siva temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra sarvatobhadras-caturdvarah Sivalayah , chapter 134, verse ). As already observed, this is the logical form that a Linga shrine is expected to have and this to have been recognised by the followers of Saivism rather late in the history of this creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha temple, as we see it today, at Varanasi are each seen to have four doors on four cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aprajita-prccha. They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a Caturmukha Linga in the sanctum cella. Some late mediaeval Siva temples in Bengal are also known to have four doors, following the sarvatobhadra scheme. The description in the Aprajita-paccha of a Siva temple as sarvatobhadra seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility that in a Siva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the particular architectural motif conceived and evolved, as observed above, under Jaina patronage.

This particularly Jaina motif in architecture, as is apparent from the above survey, is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faith, namely Buddhism and Brahmanism , and territories outside. This survey, more or less in outline illustrates the need for a fuller investigation in this regard.

Jain Monuments in Southern Karnataka

Dr. M. S. Krishna Murthy


Jainism, one of the oldest living faiths of India, has a hoary antiquity in Karnataka. No doubt, this religion took its birth in North India. However, within a couple of centuries of its birth, this religion is said to have entered into Karnataka. Jaina tradition ascribe III C.B.C. as the date of entry of this religion to south India, and in particular to Karnataka. After this period Jainism grew from strength to strength and heralded a glorious era, never to be witnessed in any part of India, to become a religion next only to Brahmanism in popularity and number. Though Jainism was spread over different parts of south India within the first few centureis of the Christian era, its nucleus as well as the stronghold was southern Karnataka. In fact, it is the general opinion that the history of Jainism in south India is predominantly the history of that religion in Karnataka. Such was the prominence that this religion enjoyed throughout the first millenium A.D. Liberal royal patron­age extended by the Kadambas, the Gangas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas, the Nolambas, !he Kalyana Chalukyas, the Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar rulers and their successors, resulted in the uninterrupted growth of this religion in southern Karnataka on an unpreceden~ed scale.

The growth, spread and popularity of Jainism in Karnataka is best illustrated by the beautiful monuments that the Jains constructed in different parts of the State. A close study of these monuments in Karnataka, would, however, reveal that the Jainas has no separate architectural tradition of their own. In the general pattern of architectural and art forms, they, nevertheless, adopted or followed, the contemporary Brahmanical architectual style prevailing in Karnataka. That is to say during the early period their architecture was similar to the Dravidian temple forms as practiced by the Gangas, Chalukyas, Pallavas etc. During the Hoysala period, they conveniently followed the traditional Hoysala as well as Dravida styles. Again during the Vijayanagar and later periods they built basadis in the same popular Dravidian style.
Besides the structural basadis, there are also a few rock-cut Jaina monuments in Karnataka indicating no strong affiliation of the Jains to one particular mode of architecture. These rock-cut vestiges are very few in number and very humble in their execution. Therefore it is difficult to suggest that a separate tradition of rock-cut architecture was practiced by the Jains.

For the sake of study the existing important monuments of the Jains in Southern Karnataka have been classified into three chronological groups viz., I-the early period (Ganga Period), II-the middle period (Hoysala period) and III the later period (Vijayanagar and post-Vijayanagar).
I - EARLY PERIOD (GANGA PERIOD) : The chronology of the temples that come under this group is between 6th century to 10th century A.D. during which time most of the parts of southern Karnataka were ruled by the Western Gangas of Talkad. The patronage that they gave for the promotion of Jainism in their kingdom, is no doubt, unprecedented.

The general layout or plan of the Jaina structural temples of this period, as can be verified from the existing Jaina monuments, generally consists of a square 'garbhagriha', a 'sukanasi', a 'gudhamandapa' (navaranga') and in rare cases a small pillared porch ('mukha mandapa'/mukha Chatushki'). They are generally 'nirandhara' temples. No apsidal Jaina basadi is noticed so far. Normally the basadis are built inside an enclosure wall with a gateway in front, occasionally having a dwara­mandapa without a 'gopura' above.

The structure is built above a moulded plinth consisting of 'upana', 'Jagati' , kumuda' 'kantha' (with or without 'kampa') 'kapota' or 'prati', and 'pattika'. The walls of the basadis are filled, at regular intervals, with pilasters, having all the decorative features of the pillars found inside the temple. Pilasters support the corbels ('potika') and architrave ('valabhi') above. The architraves or beams some­times contains a frieze of 'hamsas' or 'Ganas' or similar other decoration. 'kapota', punctated by 'kudus' at regular intervals and 'hara' (parapet) above or 'pindi' (ceiling slab) occur above the wall. So is the general pattern of decoration of the exterior wall surface, which runs uniformly alround the structure.

The wall surface may, sometimes, have 'bhadras' or central projections and 'kosthas' (niches) at regular intervals, flanked by pilasters surmounting 'toranas'. The garbhagriha' normally contains a superstructure of a very simple form ('grive sikhara') or a storeyed tower i.e., a 'sikhara' -tower.

In the design and decoration of pillars, door frames, windows, the Jaina temples of this period show a remarkable affinity with the existing Brahmanical temple of the Dravidian style. However, in the decoration of the interiors, particularly the central part of the ceiling ('vitand') of the 'navaranga' one can see a slight difference, The Brahmanical temples generally contain the panels of 'asthadikpalakas' surrounding Siva (generally Nataraja). But in the Jaina basadis instead of Siva in the centre a seated Tirthankara is represented. The 'garbhagrihas' contain the image of a Jina either in seated or standing postures, placed against the back wall of the shrine, facing the doorway.

Now coming to the study of the monuments proper, we can, on definite grounds, say that the temple architecture of the Jains had a very early beginning in southern Karnataka, as gleaned from the epigraphical and archeological evi­dences. The Halsi copper plate inscriptionl records that Mrigeshavarma (455-80 A.D.) in memory of his father Santivarma (430-55 A.D.) got a Jinalaya constructed and gave liberal grants to Jaina ascetics. Many more records of the Kadambas of Banavasi refer to the grants made to several 'sanghas' of the Jainas and to 'arhadayatanas' that flourished in their kingdom.

Same was the case with southern parts of Karnataka which were under the political hold of the Gangas of Gangavadi. Sravanabelagola a part of the Ganga Kingdom, no doubt, was the nucleus of Jainism in south India even before the Gangas emerged as a political power to reckon with. Several hundred inscriptions of Sravanabelagola record the existence of many Jaina basadis, 'Sanghas' and celebrated 'munis' of the creed at this centre as well as in other parts of Gangawadi.

However, it may be said, that these religious edifices of the Jains had a very humble beginning. They were, at the best of their appearance, were not more than a simple brick and wood structure, without much show. Even these structures, extant to us, are in a very bad state of preservation, because of the softer media used for their construction like, brick, mud and wood.

In 1897 ruins of a brick basadi were discovered at Nonamangala, near Malur in Kolar district2. Two copper plate inscriptions3 and a few bronze objects were also discovered in the debris of the structure. One of the inscriptions (Mr 73) records that the Ganga King Madhava II (461-85 A.D.) during his third regnal year (474 A. D.) at the behest of Acharya Viradeva gave a land grant to an 'arhadayatana' that existed at Perbolal. The second copper plate records that during his first regnal year the king Avinita (C. 530-70 A. D), gifts to the 'arhadayatana' at Uranur and Perur, affiliated to 'Mulasangha' were given. These two grants no doubt refer to the basadi in the ruins of which they were discovered. Only the basement of this brick structure is found in a field two Kms. west of the village and the walls were composed of a very large size bricks which were only one to two inches in thickness. Near the doorway of the east, stuck in a crevice of the wall, were found plates Mr. 73. In the north wall, near the side of the shrine, was a small chamber or cupboard, partly projecting from the wall. In this were found plates Mr. 72, along with a number of other articles"4 Dr. I. K. Sarma opines that "The find spot where ruins of brick temples were encountered was the very Jaina establishment mentioned in the grants"5.

Recent excavations at Talkad 6 have brought to light the remains of a large brick structure buried under the debris as well as the sand dune. This structure identified as a Parsvanatha basadl7 is datable on stylistic ground to 7th, 8th century A.D.8.

This structure appears to have been built in two phases. The first phase consists of three cellas is a row, an early variant of a 'trikuta' on plan, fronted by a common narrow 'mukhamandapa'. In front of this slightly separated from the main structure, in the same axis, is another square pavillion. These two units form the first phase datable to 7th-8th century A.D. The ruined stumps of the 'garbhagriha' wall, brick paved flooring of the central 'garbhagriha', portions of the flooring of the left shrine and the complete structure below that level are the only remnants, of the basadi of the First phase. Only the shrines and the two sides of the porch appear to have had brick walls surmounting a wooden roof. The sides of the detached 'mandapa' were open. Supported on the wooden pillars, there was probably a wooden roof for this pavillion also, as evidenced by the existence of several post­holes. This basadi, particularly the roof, appears to have been destroyed in a fire accident, and was later enlarged and reconstructed.

Enlargement of the basadi was made by constructing a parallel wall at a distance of about one metre encompassing both the shrine and the pavilion. This second wall provided a covered circum ambulatory path for the shrines, while it enlarged the pavilion in front on all the four sides, and converted the open pavilion into a large 'navaranga'. The 'navaranga' and the porch in front of the shrine were connected by a doorway. A well moulded stone 'adhisthana', comprising of 'upana', 'Jagati', 'kumuda' (round) 'kantha' (with 'kampa') 'pattika' and 'prati', was provided for the structure, However It is not possible to have a clear idea of the 'bhitti' and the superstructure of the basadi. Many decorative pieces moulded in lime mortar, 'kudus', 'keertimukhas', burnt 'bricks of various shapes, sizes, and terracotta mouldings, stone pedestals of pillars have been discovered during excavatins. These artistic objects indicate that a well shaped and styled basadi was existing at that place during 10th century A. D.

The Mercara Copper plates9 of Avinita (469.529 A. D.) (regarded as spurious) refers to the existence of a basadi at Talkad called Vijaya Jinalaya, caused by the minister of Akalavarsha Prithvivallabha at Talavananagara. It appears that this newly excavated basadi is perhaps, the same Jinalaya mentioned in the plates.

The excavation has not provided any clue to date this basadi to the period of Avinita. However, it is possible for us to surmise, through a comparative study of this basadi with other basad is of more or less the same period existing at other parts of Gangavadi to date this structure to 7th - 8th Century A. D. The plan of the I phase of this brick structure, particularly the' garbhagriha' unit bears a striking resemblance with the plan of the Chandragupta basadi at Sravanabelagola, datable on stylistic grounds to Pallava - early Chola period (i.e., 8th-9th century A.D.)10. Three sanctums in a row, the central cella being larger than the two cellas on the sides, all the cellas having openings to a common oblong verandah or porch, closed on the two sides are features common to both the basadis, It may be noted here that the Talakad basadi being a basadi of wood and brick with a detatched pavilion in front (a feature of early temples of Tamil country) being built first, served as a model for shaping the Chandragupta basadi in granite.

As evidenced by the excavation, this basadi of wood and brick must have suffered great damage, particularly to the wooden roof. Hence, this basadi was reconstructed and also in the meantime enlarged, During the renovation, the contemporary architectural practice of providing a circumambulatory passage and an attached spacious Inavarangal was followed. So also for exterior treatment of the wall and 'adhisthana', the Chandragupta basadi at Sravanabelagola served as a model for restoration, Because, from the remains of the basadi, remnants of almost all the mouldings and decorative designs that we see in Chandragupta basadi, have been unearthed, A reconstruction of the basadi based on these remnants, would, however, provide us with an elevational pattern, precisely resembling the elevation of Chandragupta basadi. Therefore in all probability the Talakad basadi must have been reconstructed during 9th-10th century A.D.

The brick structures of the early period made way for the construction of basadis in a more permanent material like stone, which was the order of the day for the structures of the Brahmanical creed. To study and appreciate the Jaina monuments of this period one has to visit Sravanabelgola in Channarayapattana taluk of Hassan district. Here two hillocks, 'large' (Indragiri/Vindhyagiri) and 'small' (Chandragiri) provide umpteen religious edifices, of the Jains datable from 7th century A.D, to modern period. Of these two hills the 'small hill' contains monuments of earlier date than the 'large hill'.

The earliest amongst the existing structures on the 'small hill' is the Chandra Prabhanatha basadi, built facing north. The plan of this structure consists of a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi', and a 'navaranga' having a group of four central pillars. The basadi is of 'misra' type, i.e., the brick structure raised over a stone plinth, It is said to have been erected by the Ganga king Sivamara II, hence called Sivamara basadi.

The next to come on the hill is the Chandragupta basadi, a triple celled structure already cited. This basadi built in granite appears to have been modelled on the plan of the Talakad brick basadi. Three cellas arranged in a row fronted by an oblong verandah forms the core of this basadi even though it is covered in front by later structures. Of the three cellas, the two side ones have 'ekatala brahmachchanda vimanas', while the 'vimana' of the central shrine is missing. A sculpture of Parsvanatha is housed in the central shrine while the two side shrines house Padmavati and Kushmandini Yakshis. "The entire unit" according to Dr. I. K. Sarma11, "represents an early variant of a 'Trikuta' on plan with the three 'vimanas' in a parallel line fornted by a long 'mandapa' in right angles' with the main entrance at the center facing south". He further states that "the central shrine had originally, perhaps, a 'dvitala' vimana on its top consummate to its bigger dimension and the importance of the enshrined image".

Built on a plinth consisting of 'upana' 'jagati', 'tripattakumuda' 'kampa', 'pattika', the wall surface contains a row of pilasters at regular intervals. The 'bhadra' portion at the back as well as the side walls have 'kosthas' flanked by half pilasters. The 'kapota' is punctuated by 'kudas', The 'vitana' moulding below the tower has 'vyalavari' alround. There are two 'ekatala vimanas' of 'Brahmachchanda' class above corresponding to the two side shrines, and the central 'vimana' as already stated is missing. The 'stupis' of both the 'vimanas' are missing.

The next important structure to be built on Chandragiri is the Chamundaraya basadi, a gem of Jaina architecture in the pure Dravidian style, caused to be erected by Chamundaraya, the able minister of Ganga king Marasimha II in 982 A.D. The basadi was completed by the former's son Jinadeva in 995 A.D. The basadi is a rectangular structure of the 'sandhara' type built facing east. The plan consists of a 'garbhagriha', a 'pradakshinapatha', open 'sukanasi', navaranga', and a 'mukhamandapa'. Above the 'garbhagriha' is a 'dvitala vimana' of which the first 'tala' is functional as it contains a cella and a porch with an approach staircase. The second 'tala' is' only conventional. The 'sikhara' element is of 'Vishnuchchanda' type (octagonal) surmounted by a 'stupi'.

The structure is built over a neatly moulded' adhisthana'. The wall above is decorated with regularly spaced pilasters and niches. The 'kapota' is punctated with 'kudus'. The 'hara' filled with relief sculptures of Tirthankaras, Yakshas, Yakshis, Gandharvas, Apsaras, elephants etc., give an attractive elevation to the temple. The 'navaranga' has sixteen pillars and the 'sukanasi' has two. The porch in front is an addition made by the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana in place of the original porch.
The 'garbhagriha' houses the image of. Neminatha flanked by 'Chauri' bearers. This image bears Hoysala characteristic features hence, may be a later replacement. The cella on the first storey of the 'vimana' houses the standing image of Parsvanatha installed by Chamundaraya's son Jinadeva in 985 A.D.

The most beautiful' and splendid example of the Jaina architecture of the early period is the Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli, Mandya district. Exact date of construction of this temple is not known. However, on stylistic grounds this may be placed to X century A.D12. This basadi facing north is built in two phases. The whole structure is enclosed by a high wall having an entrance and a porch in the North. The first phase consists of three symmetrically arranged and equally sized cellas oriented towards south, east and west. Each part has a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi' opening to a common 'navaranga' consisting of 4 central pillars. The 'navaranga' has a doorway towards the north and a porch in front of it. The second phase is a 'dvikuta' of a slightly later period, built just in front of the porch of first phase. It consists of two shrines built facing each other. Each shrine has a 'garbhagriha', a 'sukanasi' a 'navaranga' of four pillars connected to a common porch in front. In between the porches of these two phases, is a 'balipitha'. This is a neatly moulded structure also sculpted on the sides.

All the shrines have the images of Tirthankaras viz., I phase, South­Adinatha, West-Neminatha, and east Santinatha. II phase, West-Adinatha and east Santinatha. All the five shrines are built in granite in pure Dravidian style, hence look identical in form and shape except for the 'sikhara' part which are of round, square and octagonal shapes. Vertical elevation of all the shrines exhibit identically treated surface. The three shrines of the I phase stand on the common' adhisthana' and two of the II phase, on another. The mouldings of these two 'adhisthanas' are nevertheless identical in treatment. They are 'upana', 'jagati', 'tripattakumuda'. 'kantha' with 'kampa' and 'pattika'.

The wall surface has tetragonal pilasters at regular intervals. Architectural niches are, however, found in the central part of the walls of each of the architectural components. A few of them also have standing Jina images. Neverthe­less the total 'appearance of the building, is highly orthodox, symmetrical and pleasing. These temples with their proportional dimensions, according to Dr. I.K, Sarma "impart an arithmetic beauty, speak of the mastery of the compositional aspects of the temple builders13". Dr. K.R. Srinivasan considers this monument as a "landmark in south Indian temple architecture"14.
Besides, these important Jaina monuments described above. There are innumerable Jain vestiges in southern Karnataka datable to the first millennium A. D. Important among them are listed below :
Place
Name
Material
1. Manne, B'lore Dist.
Sule Devalaya
Stone
2. Muguru, Mysore Dist.
Sivalaya Basadi
Brick/Stone
3. Nandi, B'lore Dist.
Rock Shelters
4. Tippuru, Mandya Dist.
Site
Rock Shelters
5. Kyatanahalli, Mandya Dist.
Site
6. Bastipura, Mysore Dist.
Site (Now completely disappeared)
7. Doddahundi, Mysore Dist.
Nishidhi
8. Begur, B'lore Dist
Nishidi
9. Asandhi, Kadur Dist.
Nishidi

II. MIDDLE PERIOD (HOYSALA PERIOD)The end of X century A.D. witnessed a tremendous political change in southern Karnataka. The Ganga royal family which dominated the politics of this region for over five centuries suddenly eclipsed due to the political supremacy of the Cholas on one side and the emergence of the Hoysalas on the other. The Cholas who conquered south eastern parts of Karnataka and ruled it for over one hundred years did not appear to have provided as congenial an atmoshere as extended to by the Gangas for' the promotion of Jainism. However, the Hoysalas who emerged as a strong political power offered the same prestigious position and status of Jainism as was extended to by the Gangas. Even the emergence of Srivaishnavism under the Saint Ramanujacharya as a powerful religion did not, in any way, affect the power, pomp and popularity of Jainism in the Hoysala country. The golden age of Jainism in Karnataka which commenced during the middle of X century A.D. continued upto the end of XII century. During this period the best of the religious and cultural achievements may be said to have attained by the Jains in Karnataka.

The Hoysalas practiced an art tradition which is, of course, magnificent and unique by itself. Described as a hyoridised form of Nagara and Dravida styles of architecture, the Hoysala temples contain many other elements, which, to a great extent, are the innovations of highly skilled creative artists. The Hoysala medium for construction of temples was mainly Chloritic schist or soap stone known for its fine grain. close texture, soft and malleable qualities. The softness of the stone was taken best advantage of for the exquisite display of minute and lavish decoration in each and every part of the architectural programme. Hundreds of temples allover southern Karnataka were built under the liberal patronage of Hoysalas. Two modes of architectural styles were preferred to for building temples by these artists. The first is the classical mode which is characteristic of their style and the second is the Dravidian style. The classical mode or the Hoysala style also defined as 'Vesara' style-a tasteful blend of North and South Indian varieties - consists of a star-shaped plan for the 'garbhagriha'. The other parts of the temple plan are 'sukanasi', 'navaranga', 'mukhamandapa' all built generally over a platform or 'jagati', slightly bigger in size than the temple proper, providing an open promenade alround, for circumambulation.

The 'vimana', being a mixed form of north and south Indian varieties, possesses the Nagara element in the vertical ribbings and deep chases of the wall carried right upto the top; as well as the Dravida element in the steeply stepped horizontal tiers of the tower. The 'vimana'-tower is neither curvilinear nor stepped pyramidal but looks roughly like a half folded royal parasol. Examples of this type of 'vimanas' are few compared to the second style of modified Dravidian stepped pyramidal 'vimanas' of the Hoysalas. 'Kadamba Nagara' or 'Phamsana' variety of 'vimana' towers were also built besides the two varieties described above.

The Jain temples of the Hoysala period, to suit their simple and austere religious life, were also constructed in a simple form, of course, within the general pattern of the Hoysala style. Except two living examples all the Jaina monuments of the period are conspicuous by their simplicity and clarity of style.

Despite the fact that the Jaina builders got accustomed to the new style and media brought in by the Hoysala builders, those Jaina monuments that were built on the Chandragiri (small hill) at Sravanabelgola, the nucleus of Jainism in Karnataka. are built in the orthodox Dravidian style as practiced by the Gangas. They are either granite temples or brick temples or 'misra' (mixed) type. It is difficult to give a satisfactory explanation to this puritanism of the Jains on this hill. However, this may be explained as that they were probably, slow in assimilating, the new wave of architectural movement existing around or perhaps, they found the old Dravidian style with less glamour adequate to meet their minimal religious requirements. Moreover strict adherence to austerity and restraint are the first and foremost principles of a true Jain to achieve the goal of salvation. Probably this temperament of the Jains played a major role in the design and decoration of the basadis they constructed on small hill. It must be remembered that simplicity of the style, however, in no way reflects the economic stature of the patrons. Most of these basad is are constructed by Kings, Queens, wealthy and influential persons, some of whom were even related to the ruling royal family and placed highly in the official and social circles. Gangaraja, the celebrated general, King Vishnuvardhana, and others, Queen Santaladevi, ministers and wealthy merchants have caused basadis to be built here. Yet they are simple Dravidian structures with no superior architectural elegance and the rich Hoysala style has the least impact on these structures.

While this was the case with the monuments on Chandragiri, in others places the impact of Hoysala art was rather less. However, personal predilections and taste of the patrons also played a deciding role in the selection of architectural pattern of the temple. This resulted in the construction of a few basad is in the ornate style of the Hoysalas. The Jaina architects also started gradually absorbing the Hoysala elements into their structures. Soap stone which was used hither to by the Jains for carving sculptures also became the media for constructing walls, carving pillars, doorways and 'bhuvanesvaris'. The stellate plan, in contrast to Dravidian plan was also brought in occasionally.

Now coming to some of the general characteristic features of the Jain basadis of the Hoysala period we can say that the principal components of the plan of these structures, whether built in pure Dravidian style, or Hoysala style,' apparently contains a 'garbhagriha' a 'Sukanasi', (open or closed) a 'navaranga' and a 'mukhamandapa'. All these temples are 'nirandhara' in character excepting one solitary example (Kattale basadi on Chandragiri).The plan of the basadis of the Hoysala period (excepting those built on the Chandragiri in Dravidian style) may by classified broadly into the following three categories:
Basadis whose walls are laid in straight lines without offsets
Basadis whose walls have graduated projections
Basadis whose 'vimanas' have stellate plans.

The exterior walls of these structures of the period are usually simple in contrast to the rich sculptural and decorative treatment of the Brahmanical temples. They usually possess the simple decoration of pilasters, sham niches, with turrets above, a sloped 'kapota', parapet and 'vimana'-tower. The 'vimana'-tower occurs in rare cases. However, they are built in Dravidian or Hoysala styles depending upon the structure on which it is supported.

The pillars of the Jain temples of the period, are no doubt, lathe turned and highly polished in the typical Hoysala fashion and medium. Excepting the varieties of mouldings, (vertical or horizontal) the bell shape in the centre and lustrous polish, nothing aesthetically significant is found on them.

The domed ceilings or the 'bhuvanesvaris' or the Jain basad is are of no less inferior to those found in the Brahmanical temples of the period, in design, decoration and size. Here one can see a vivid display of architectural, decorative designs and puranic frieges of the Jains vividly recorded.

The doorways of the basadis are also equally ornate in their delineation. Figures of Yaksha and Yakshi, Manmatha at Rati appear on the door jambs. The figures of Ganga and Yamuna are generally absent. 'Dwarapalakas' are often found here. The lintel at its 'Ialatabimba' usually contains the figure of a seated Jina or god Indra.

As the worship of Yakshas and Yakshis was the trend of the day amongst the Digambara Jains, each and every basadi was adorned with the loose sculptures of respective Yaksha and Yakshi of the Jina housed in the 'garbhagriha'. They are placed either in the' sukanasi' or in the navaranga'.
Every basadi was also provided with a 'Manastambha', a counterpart of the 'Dhwajastamba' of the Brahmanical temples. 'Manastambha' is a lofty pillar firmly fixed to the ground through a masonry, moulded platform. The monolithic shaft supports a capital, a divine figure or a jina, housed normally inside a small masonry pavilion with a turret above.

Some of the important places in Southern Karnataka where good Jain basadis can be seen are Sravanabelgola, Jinanathapura, Halebeedu, Humcha, Chikkahanasoga, Nitturu Arasikere and other places. Besides these places listed above there are also a number of places in the region where Jaina basadis are still extant. Many of them are either in disrepair or have been renovated during later times thus losing theit original shape.

SRAVANABELGOLA : The largest concentration of Jaina basadis at one place in Karnataka is to be seen here, where nearly one hundred monuments of various sizes and shapes are existing at present situated on the two hills and in the township as well. Among them some are Ganga, some are Hoysala and some, Vijayanagar in time. However, architectural activity at this place on the maximum scale may be said to have taken place during Ganga and Hoysala periods.
Of the basadis at Sravanabelgola township the Bhandari basadi, Akkana basadi and Nagara Jinalaya deserve special attention here. Bhandari basadi or 'Chaturvimsati Tirthankara basadi' is a large structure built facing North contains on plan an oblong 'garbhagriha'; a similar 'sukanasi', 'navaranga', mukhamandapa' and a porch all enclosed by a 'prakara' wall. This basadi is so named because it was got constructed by Hulla, the Bhandari (royal treasurer) of Hoysala Narasimha I in 1159 A. D. The king who visited this basadi named it as 'Bhavya Chudamani basadi' and granted the village Savaneru (Sravaneri) for its upkeep. The 'garbhagriha' contains the images of all the 24 Tirthankaras, each 3' in height, all placed on a common oblong pedestal. There are three doorways provided for the' garbhagriha' in front to have a clear look of all the images. The central doorway contains the usual delicate and crisp carvings of the Hoysala workmanship. The interspaces of the doorways are provided with 'jalandhras'. The central part of the 'navaranga' floor contains a huge monolithic slab of 10 feet sides. Similar slabs are also found in front of the structure a good example to the tremendous transportation capacity of the Hoysala builders.

The only temple in Sravanabelgola to be built in the classical non-ornate Hoysala idiom is the Akkana basadi, so named as it was constructed by a staunch Jaina lady Achiyakka wife of Chandra Mouli, a saiva Brah­min, a 'Sandhi vigrahi', and a min­ister of Ballala II, in the year 1182 A.D. as evidenced by two inscriptions there 15. The temple is built out of dark blue schist on a stellate plan. The plan consists of a 'jagati', a 'garbha­griha', a' sukanasi', a 'navaranga' and a 'mukhamandapa'.

The garbhagriha houses the standing image of Parsvanatha of about 5" in height. The' sukanasi' has the seated images of Dharanendra Yaksha and Padmavathi Yakshi. The 'nava­ranga' has four beau­tifully carved 'bell' moulded pillars and also 'bhuva-nesvaris' with delicate carvings. The outer walls are non-ornate, hence appear very simple. Plinth having neatly cut mouldings, thin pilasters and occasional 'stambha panjaras' of the walls, the 'kapota', the 'prastara', elegantly shaped pyramidal 'vimana'-tower with a 'sukanasa' projection in front, are all built in conformity with the Hoysala style. The carvings are still unfinished.

The other Jaina temple of the Hoysala period here is the Nagara Jinalaya built in 1199 A. D. by 'Pattanaswamy' Nagadeva. 'Sri Nilaya' is the other name of this basadi. As the merchants of the town ('nagaras') gave many grants to this basadi it came to be known as 'Nagara Jinalaya'. The plan consists of a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi' and 'navaranga'. The 'garbhagriha' houses the standing image of Adinatha (21/2' in height). The 'navaranga' has the image of standing Brahmadeva. He holds a fruit in the left hand and a whip in the right. The pedestal has the carving of a horse.
Small hill or Chikka betta in Sravanabelgola during the Xl and XIII centuries was a beehive of Jaina religious activities. Gangaraja, Santaladevi, and other rich and liberal people built six basadis on this hill. However all these monuments, as noticed earlier, are built out of granite and are in Dra"vidian style. They are 1. P arsvanatha basadi, 2. Kattale basadi, 3. Sasana basadi, 4. Savatigandhavarana basadi, 5. Teriha basadi, 6. Santisvara basadi.

PARSVANATHA BASADI : This being one of the two tallest structures of Sravanabelgola, houses the standing image of Parsvanatha of 17' in height. It has a seven hooded serpent above. This image carved out of a single block of schist is next only to the colossus of Gommata in height at Sravanbelgola. Not only this sculpture of Parsvanatha is colossal but it is also beautiful with delicate and tasteful decorations of the hooded 'serpent, sculptured pedestal where mythologically important reliefs are carved.

The temple occupies an area of 69 X 20 feet and on plan consists of a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi', navaranga' and a porch. Except for the neatly moulded plinth and sloped 'kapota' aesthetically there is nothing noteworthy in the struc­ture. The exact date of c:mstruction of this temple is not known. However,it is datable to the beginning of 12th century A.D. on the basis of an inscription on a pillar in the temple.

In front of this basadi is a neatly executed 'Manastambha' erected by Puttayya in 17th century. This supports a pillared pavilion with a turret above. The total height of this' stambha' is 65'.6".

KATTALE BASADI : The biggest of the basadis on the small hill. It measures 120 x 40 feet. 'garbhagriha', 'pradakshinapatha' (a strange phenomenon of this temple) an open 'sukanasi', a 'navaranga' of 16 pillars, a large 'rangpmandapa' (a hypostyle hall built adjoining the front of Chandragupta basadi of Ganga times) are the components of the plan of this structure, The 'garbhagriha' houses the seated image of Adinatha flanked by male 'chauri' bearers. A label inscription on the pedestal of this image records that Pochavve, mother of Gangaraja caused this basadi to be built here. A large stone screen containing many interesting incidents of Jaina mythology, is found placed separating the 'rangamandapa' of this basadi and the adjoining Chandragupta basadi.

SASANA BASADI : A structure of misra type i.e., a neatly plastered brick and mortar structure on a well moulded stone plinth. Its plan has a 'garbhagriha', open 'sukanasi', a 'navaranga', and a 'mukhamandapa'. The 'garbhagriha' houses the image of Adinatha of 5' high, 'sukanasi' houses the images of Yaksha Gomukha and Yakshi Chakresvari. The wall decoration on the exterior consists of closely spaced pilasters, 'kapota', 'hara' housing Jaina figures. Gangaraja, the able general of king Vishnuvardhana built this basadi 'Indrakulagriha' and the king granted a village for its upkeep. The basadi has derived its present name becasue of the presence of a large stone inscription of 1118 A.D. in front which states that this structure was built by the mother and wife of Gangaraja in 1118 A.D. The record was engraved ~ by Vardhamanachari alias Gangachari.

SAVATIGANDHAVARANA BASADI : King Vishnuvardhana's chief queen Santaladevi, who had the distinctive epithet 'Savatigandhavarini' ( a rutting elephant to the co­wives) caused a basadi to be built here and enshrined Santinatha (3' 4 ') seated on a lion throne in the year 1123 A.D. Though built by the chief queen of the most powerful Hoysala monarch, architecturally and artistically this basadi has an average quality workmanship. 'Garbhagriha', 'sukanasi', 'navaranga' are the con­stituents of the plan. In the 'sukanasi' are the figures of Sarvahana and Ambika. The 'navaranga' pillars are ordinary and hardly possess the Hoysala elegance. There is also a simple pyramidal 'vimana' -tower to the temple, repaired subsequently.

TERINA BASADI : This has got its name because of the so called 'car-like' masonry stone platform or 'balipitha' in front of it. The plan contains a 'garbhagriha', a 'sukanasi' and a 'navaranga'. The 'garbhagriha' has the image of Bahubali of 5 feet high. The' car' in front of the basadi is called 'mandara'. Two classes of 'mandaras' are known in Jaina tradition viz., 'Nandisvara' and 'Meru'. This "car' belongs to the 'Meru' classHi.It contains the relievos of 52 Jinas alround. This was got carved by Machikabbe and Santikabbe mothers of Hoysala setty and Nemisetty respectively in the year 1117 A.D. The two sons named were the royal merchants of King Vishnuvardhana.

SANTISVARA BASADI : Built probably in 1117 A.D. by Hiri (elder) Echimayya son of Bammanna the elder brother of Gangaraja. Hiri Echimayya was also responsible for constructing the Aregal basadi at Jinanathapura. 'Garbhagriha' open 'sukanasi', a 'navaranga' of 10 pillars, a 'mukhamandapa' are on the plan of this brick basadi. Architecturally this basadi is insignificant. It has the standing image of Santinatha (5' .2" high) which is interesting. The pedestal of the image has the relief of Indra and Sachi, his consort, on their way to consecrate the Tirthankara. Two attendant images of a later period are also found on the two sides. The 'sukanasi' has the usual images of Sarvahana Yaksha and Ambika Yakshi. The Dravidian tower of brick and mortar has lost its original features.

JINANATHAPURA : This village is situated adjacent to Sravanbelgola, north of Chikkabetta. Gangaraja, General of Vishnuvardhana is said to have founded this village in the beginning of XII century A.D. There are two basadis in this village. The first one is the Parsvanatha basadi or Aregal basadi caused to be constructed by Echa, elder brother of Gangaraja, in 1135 A.D. This is a very ordinary temple of the Hoysala style having a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi' and a 'navaranga'. The original image in the 'garbhagriha' is missing. Instead a Parsvanatha image was installed there in 1889 by one Bahubalayya. The temple also contains the loose sculptures of 24 Tirthankaras, Dharanendra, Padmavati, Panchaparamesthis, Navadevatas and Nandi brought from elsewhere.

SANTINATHA BASADI : This basadi situated to the west of the village is the main attraction of this place. This was cqused to be built by 'Vasudaikabandhava' Rechana, a minister of Ballala II in about 1200 A. D. This basadi is, perhaps, the most ornate basadis built in the classical Hoysala ornate style. Excepting the 'vimana'-tower all other components of this temple are preserved. The 'jagati', 'garbhagriha' of stellate plan, 'sukanasi', 'navaranga' are the components of this temple. The wall surface, though basically, rectangular contains many inde~tations. Regular decorations of pilasters, niches with turreted canopies, wall sculptures of average 3' height, meandering creeper scrolls running vertically in the interspaces of closely spaced pilasters are excellently imagined and executed. The subject matter of these figure sculptures, sparing the Tirthankaras, are dancers-male and female, in different poses, Gods and Goddesses, Yakshas and Yakshis, attendants, 'chauri' bearers. All these sculptures and decorative designs_are so beautifully and delicately carved that we find few parallels in the entire gamut of Hoysala sculptures.

In the design and decoration of the interiors also a similar degree of excellence is maintained. The lathe turned pillars of the 'navaranga', the domed ceilings, the wall niches and their turrets are all of superb quality workmanship. The 'garbhagriha' houses the standing image of Santinatha.

HALEBEEDU : Next group of Jaina monuments, built under the Hoysalas can be seen at Dorasamudra or Halebeedu, their capital seat. Here are three basad is built in a row towards the south of the Hoysalesvara temple. These basadis, almost identical in plan and surface treatment, are of Parsvanatha (1133 A. D.), Santinatha (1196 A. D.) and Adinatha (about the same period). The Parsvanatha basadi was constructed by Boppa son of Gangaraja, in 1133 A. D. In the same year son Narasimha was born to Vishnuvardhana. Hence, the king named this basadi as 'Vijaya Parsva'. The plan consists of a 'garbhagriha', 'sukanasi' and 'navaranga'. The 'garbhagriha' houses a tall image of Parsvanatha (14 feet high) with a hooded serpant above his head. The wall surface is treated in a very simple way. The walls are plain with thin pilasters at regular intervals and are devoid of any other decorations. The pillars in the 'navaranga are excellently chiselled and polished. The two other basadis are almost identical to this basadi with minor variations.
HUMCHA : A small town in the Hosanagara taluk of Shimogga district. The other names of this place are, Pombuchcha, Patti-Pombuchcha, Hombuja etc. From the beginning of 8th century A. D. to 16fh century, this place was an active Jaina pilgrim centre. This was also the capital seat of the Santaras of Santalige-1000 province. There are many basad is here found in different stages of preservation. The earliest among them is datable to C 850 A. D. called Paliyakkana basadi, which no longer exists. The remains of Parsvanatha and Hale-basadis are still to be seen. Panchakuta basadi the largest among the basadis here was built in 1077 by Chattaladevi. This basadi is referred to in inscriptions as 'Urdhvitilaka'. In front of this structure is a tall ornate 'manastambha'. Five 'garbhagrihas', built on a common plinth arranged in a row to have a common 'navaranga' and 'mukhamandapa'. The original sculptures of Neminatha, Santinatha and Parsvanatha only are remaining in the 'garbhagrihas'. The basadi has undergone much repairs.
CHIKKA HANASOGE : This place was an important Jaina settlement since the time of the Gangas. After the Gangas, the Chengalvas patronised Jainism here. Adinatha basadi of this place, said to have been installed by Sri Rama was reconstructed by Vira Rajendra Nanni Chengalva Rajendra Chola, a feudatory of the Cholas in XI century A. D. This basadi is a 'Trikutachala' repaired and reconstructed in recent years. The structure is of granite. However, the ornate door frames and the sculptures there in are made out of chloritic schist. The three 'garbhagrihas' house Adinatha, Santinatha and Neminatha. All the 'garbhagrihas' have 'sukanasis' which open to a 'navaranga'. The superstructures on these 'garbhagrihas' are completely lost.

NITTURU : A town in Gubbi tal uk of Tumkur district has an ornate Santisvara basadi of the Hoysala period (c. 12th Century A. D.) .'Garbhagriha" 'sukanasi', 'navaranga' and 'mukhamandapa' are found in this temple. The treatment of the exterior is quite ornate having a moulded 'adhisthana', pilastered wall, niches with turrents, and other floral patterns. The design of the pillars of the 'navaranga' are varied and attractive. The 'bhuvanesvaris' are deep and contain notable decorations. The 'garbhagriha' houses the image of Santinatha.

ARASIKERE : Sahasrakuta Jinalaya of this town is a beautiful Jaina basadi of soap stone built by Dandanayaka Rechimayya, a general of Hoysala king Ballala II in the year 1220 A.D. The sculptor who supervised the work was Namojal7. The plan of the basadi consists of a large 'garbhagriha' with 4 pillars, a 'sukanasi' with three doorways opening to the three bays of the 'navaranga', a 'navaranga', and a 'mukhamandapa'. The 'navaranga' is the most attractive part of the entire scheme. The four central pillars and the nine 'bhuvanesvaris' are of typical Hoysala workmanship. Particularly noteworthy is the central 'bhuvanesvari' which is in the form of a huge inverted lotus flower. The other' bhuvanesvaris' have, besides the usual decorations, unidentified narrative friezes. The 'garbhagriha' in the centre has a 'Sahastrakuta Jina bimba' containing 1008 tiny representations of Jinas carved on a monolithic conventional architectural model. This 'bimba' is inscribed 18 and records that it was installed by Recharasa in 1220 A.D. eminent councillor of Kalachuri dynasty, taking refuge under Ballala II.
The basadi has undergone much repairs. Most parts of the external wall surface is rebuilt. The tower of the basadi is missing.

III-LATER PERIOD (VIJAYANAGAR AND LATER PERIODS)Jainism which enjoyed a highly respectable status under the liberal patron­age of the Hoysalas suffered a set back during the beginning of the Vijayanagara rule. This was apparently due to the sudden emergence of Veerasaivism on the one side and Sri Vaishnavism on the other, which wielded considerable influence on the ruling families of Vijayanagar. However, the cosmopolitan outlook of some of the Vijayanagar rulers helped to maintain religious hormony in the empire sometimes, through personal interference of the kings, to settle the religious conflicts. Inspite of the religious vicissitudes that the Jains experienced, there was no dearth for their creative productions in the field of fine arts. Jaina received support and patronage of people and rulers alike, many new basad is were constructed, many got repaired and received liberal grants. Thus there seems to have been no threat for the peaceful co-existence of this religion under the Vijayanagar kings in southern Karnataka.

There are several inscriptional references for the construction of new Jaina basadis in this region. Besides these the construction of many more basadis have gone unrecorded or unnoticed. The Vijayanagar feudatories like Kongalvas, Changalvas, Gerusoppe rulers, the various mahaprabhus, nayakas, Wodeyars etc., also patronised Jainism liberally, even after the collapse of the central power at Hampi.

Now coming to the study of the Jaina basadis of the Vijayanagar period, it is to be mentioned again here that the general style of architecture of the basadis was in no way dissimilar to the architectural style of the Brahmanical creed. For the understanding of the configuration of the typical Jaina basadis of Vijayanagar period, we may take the plan of the existing Ganagitti Jinalaya at Kamalapura near Hampi. It consists of a 'garbhagriha', a 'sukanasi', a '.angamandapa', a second 'rangamandapa' and a 'mukhamandapa' all arranged on one axis. The second 'rangamandapa' consists of three doorways, on its three sides. Of them one leads to a 'garbhagriha' on one side and the other two open to the porches. Similarly planned basad is are found at Anegondi and Hampi, thus indicating the fancy of the builders and the people for this type of basadis. All these basadis have a pyramidal 'phamsana' veriety of 'vimana' -towers.
However, this type was not suitable for basadis in coastal Karnataka. Due to the heavy rainfall that this region received annually, the structures were built to withstand the torrential rains. Hence over the regular strong frame work and ceiling of the structure, another storey, generally not funtional, having a lesser height was built, often over a wooden frame work. This was covered by a tiled roof or metal sheets or overlapping stone slabs. Good examples of this are found almost all over south Canara district. In the plan of the structure generally a 'garbhagriha', a 'sukanasi', a 'navaranga', a colonnaded verandah alround serving as a 'pradakshina patha' as well as a porch to prevent the rain from lashing the structure.

Of the Jaina monuments the Ganagitti Jinalaya is perhaps the most complete among the Jaina basadis of the capital. The plan of the structure has already been described. This was constructed in the year 1385 by Iruga, minister of Bukka II, in the reign of Harihara II. The inscription mentions this basadi as 'Kunthu Jinalaya'. The front doorway has a small seated Jina under triple umbrella, is the 'lalata bimba'. Also the brick and mortar parapet in front has similar mutilated stucco Jinas. Rest of the structure is devoid of any decorative carvings.
During the Vijayanagar period, Sravanabelgola, also received royal atten­tion. The Mangayi basadi of C. 1325 A. D. constructed by a lady of that name consists of a 'garbhagriha' a 'sukanasi' and a 'navaranga'. The 'navaranga' has the standing image of Parsvanatha donated by Bhimadevi, queen of Devaraya I (1406­22 A. D.) and a lay disciple of Panditacharya. The monuments of Sravanabelgola of this period on the large hill are Chauvisa Tirthankara basadi (1648 A. D.), Odegal basadi (14th Century A. D.), Chennanna basadi (C.1667 A. D.), Siddhara basadi (C.17-18th Century), Wodeyar mandapa (1634 A. D.) etc.

The best and well preserved Jaina monuments of this period are located in the South Canara district, where a number of beautiful and aesthetically superior and architecturally significant basadis, monolithic Bahubali statues and 'Manastambhas' are available in good numbers. Jainism in this region of Karnataka has a remote antiquity. However. Jainism became a dominant religion only during the late Hoysala and Vijayanagar periods. Popularity and domination of the Vaishnava and Veerasaiva creeds in the Deccan plateau was perhaps, responsible for the migration of JaiDs from the table land to this coastal plains, which place, perhaps, they found more suitable to pursue their religious life without the interference of other dominant religious sects.

Amongst the important Jaina structures of South Canara the Tribhuvana Chudamani basadi at Mudabidre, Chaumukha basadi at Karkala, Santisvara basadi at Venur etc., deserve special attention.

MUDABIDRE : Tribhuvana Chudamani basadi at Mudabidre is the largest of the Jaina basad is of South Canara district. It was built in 1429-30 by the emperor Devaraya II (1446-67). Built inside a double enclosure, this structure has a 'garbhagriha' and three'rangamandapas'. all arranged on the same axis. The halls are named Tirthankaramandapa. Gaddiga mandapa and Chitramandapa. There is also a detatched pavilion in front of the basadi called Bhairadevi mandapa. This was built in the year 1451-52 during the reign of king Devaraya by Gopanna Odeyar.

The interior of the halls of these 'mandapas' contain good number of pillars which are known for their exquisite carvings and versatality of decorative designs. Each pillar in design and decoration, is different from the other and no two pillars appear the same in decoration. There are also friezes of sculptures running alround, identified as scenes from the Jaina Puranas.
KARKALA : Situated about fifteen Kms. from Mudabidre this place is known for its tall monolithic statue of Bahuball, and few Jaina basadis. The Chaumukh or Chaturmukh basadi built in 1587 A.D. is an architecturally interesting structure. The square sanctum has four doorways opening to four directions, and surrounded by a pillared verandah with projecting porches on all the four sides. Each of the doorways of the 'garbhagriha' opens to a row of three Jinas viz., Aranatha, Mallinatha and Munisuvrata the 18th, 19th, and 20th Tirthankaras respectively. All the four sets of idols are carved in blackstone and are identical in size and carvings. The roof of the sanctum is flat, formed of stone slabs the joints of which are covered by stone ribs. The verandah has a sloped roof alround formed of overlapping stone slabs.

VENUR : This place is situated about 20 Kms. from Mudabidre where a few jaina basad is important for their structural specialities are built. Santisvara basadi here, dated 1489 A. D. is a temple built completely out of stone, having a second storey, smaller in size, containing a cella, housing the image of a Jina. This method of building functional cellas over the' garbhagriha' is an age-old practice of Jains in Karnataka as evidenced by the Meguti temple at Aihole and Chavundaraya basadi at Sravanabelgola. This Santisvara basadi also has a beautiful, 'manastambha' in front.

BHATKAL : The Chandranathesvara basadi here is a structure noteworthy for its plan and elevation. The temple faces east. It consists of two structural blocks, eastern and western, both connected by a small porch. The western block has the shrine and two halls built parallelly across the axis of the temple. The halls are provided with perforated screens. This block also has an upper storey covered by a pyramidal roof formed of overlapping stone slabs.

The eastern block which is constructed like a 'dwaramandapa' for the temple, contains in the middle a broad gateway. Built on a moulded stone plinth, it has the wall surface relieved with engaged pillars to support the huge stone beams of the roof. The flat roof with sloped sides is formed of overlapping slabs. There is also a rectangular storey for this block, which also has engaged pillars at regular intervals supporting architraves. The interspaces of the engaged pillars are filled by a wall of laterite bricks. The upper storey is covered by a flat roof of stone slabs with rib-stones covering the joints, and a sloped 'kapota' alround. Perhaps, this is one of the attempts of the architects of this region to provide a suitable 'dwaramandapa' on the lines of the Dravidian 'gopura', which not only suits the surrounding architectural pattern, but also can withstand the torrential rains of the region.

'MANASTAMBHAS'To the class of Jaina monuments of southern Karnataka may be added the colossal 'manastambhas' (huge masonry columns) that are erected in front of the Jaina basadis. They are the counterparts of the Hindu 'Dhvajastambhas' in front of temples like 'Garuda Kambha' and 'Nandi Kambha'. The 'manastambhas' generally consist of three parts viz., a moulded platform, to suit the size of the pillar, monolithic shaft, and the capital or 'Makuta', the crowning member. The platform is masonry in nature, moulded with attractive forms and also sometimes decorated with relievos. The shaft is made of a single stone and designed suitably. The height of the shaft varies from place to place. The shaft carries the capital, abacus and the crowning member. Here the skill and imagination of the artist really makes the difference. Starting from ordinary capital and abacus type to most complicated and ornate crowning members are found carved here. From an ordinary seated sculpture to turreted 'mandapas' with delicate carvings have been found placed on these 'manastambhas'. Four Jinas facing four directions called 'Chaumukha Jinas', are generally placed in these pavilions. Yakshas may sometimes replace the Jinas, but Yakshis are never placed here.

The best specimens of 'manastambhas' considered as frieaks of architectural skill and taste of the Jaina artists can be seen at Sravanabelgola, Kambadahalli, Halebeedu, Humcha, Hiriyangadi, Karkala, Mudabidre, Mulki and other places in southern Karnataka.