Shrimad Rajchandra Chair in Jain Studies Inaugurated at University of California, Riverside

RIVERSIDE, Calif. — The mood was a joyous one as about 75 members of the Indian American Jain community in Southern California gathered here Oct. 23 for the inauguration of the “Shrimad Rajchandra Endowed Chair in Jain Studies” at the University of California, Riverside.

The event opened with the Navkar Mantra led by two Samnijis from Florida.

Dr. Sulekh Jain of Houston narrated how the chair had come to be established. With the encouragement of Dr. Harvinder Sahota and Dr. Pashuara Singh, Chair of Religious Studies at UCR, he said, as well as the support of dean Milagrosa Pena, School of Humanities, Arts and Social Science; and senior director of development Emily Rankin, the idea took momentum.

Two donor families, Mahesh and Usha Wadher and Drs. Jasvant and Meera Modi, pledged to raise the $1 million required to establish the chair. Other donors and supporters included Vijay and Madhu Chheda, Dilip and Sushama Parekh, the Jain Center of Southern California, Shrimad Rachandra Mission Dharampur and the Jain Temple of Los Angeles.

Mahesh Wadher spoke of the importance of spreading the principles of Jainism. He also talked about Shirmad Rajchandra and his influence on Mahatma Gandhi and how that affected the non-violence movement in the India independence movement, according to a press release.

Associate professor Ana Bajzelj, who will occupy the chair, talked about the progress being made in religious studies. Chancellor Kim A. Wilcox spoke about the importance of diversity in the university and how critical it is to be able to offer different religious perspectives to students.

The event concluded with a sumptuous Jain vegan dinner catered by Jaybharat of Artesia.

(India West)

Revival of Prakrit Languages

-Parth Shastri

AHMEDABAD: In the Middle Ages (5th century BC to 12th century AD) when Sanskrit was enjoying the position of Devabhasa (language of the gods) in India, especially in northern parts, the citizens of various states derived and used their own languages such as Ardhmagadhi, Shaurseni and Maharashtri known with umbrella term of Prakrit, literally meaning natural or vernacular.

Down the centuries, the language has again fascinated the scholars for a large pool of information yet to be tapped from manuscripts and documents belonging to golden age of Prakrit. LD Institute of Indology hosted a two-day seminar titled 'In Search of Rare Prakrit Literature' on March 23 and 24 where more than 50 scholars and researchers participated. The experts concluded that the rare literary treasure should be preserved for the generations to come.

Talking about Prakrit, New Delhi-based BL Institute of Indology's Professor Gayacharan Tripathi said that it was contemporary of languages such as Sanskrit and Pali. "Gautam Buddha and Mahavira spoke Magadhi and Ardhmagadhi to reach out to the masses. Later, Jainism adopted it for Jain canon of scriptures. While Sanskrit was used to write 'classic' literature, Prakrit documented common people's life outside general subjects revolving around kings and religion," he said.

Scholars said that Gujarat holds special mention in history of Prakrit as while Valabhi University was a major center of learning using the language along with Sanskrit, Hemchandracharya, 11th century scholar in Solanki era, wrote grammar for the language that was later followed widely.

Director of LD Institute of Indology J B Shah said that the event was organized with a view to collect the Prakrit works. "Every language is reflection of the contemporary society and Prakrit is no exception. It captured mood and currents of India and became voice of the parallel literature. By its proper study, we believe, we may get to learn hitherto unknown facts about regions, persons and history," he said.
Movement to preserve manuscripts

The participants at the seminar stressed on the need to sensitize citizens about preservation of manuscripts. "Many of the households in the country are in possession of manuscripts about which they don't know much. Unfortunately many of it either gets bundled up or discarded. We want to create awareness to donate such works to institutes where it can be studied and documented to further our quest for knowledge of the bygone era," said Shah.

Claremont Lincoln University to Offer Jain Studies

By PARIMAL M. ROHIT

indiawest.com September 15, 2011 03:10:00 PM

CLAREMONT, Calif. — Over 300 people filled the Seeley G. Mudd Theater on the Claremont School of Theology campus here Sept. 6 to commemorate the official launch of the first multi-religious university in Claremont, Claremont Lincoln University, and its offering of academic studies in Jainism.

The university announced both the launch of Claremont Lincoln University and the “signing of a wide-ranging Letter of Understanding between the International School for Jain Studies and Claremont Lincoln” at the 2011 Fall Convocation event.

Known as “ISJS at Claremont Lincoln,” the academic program will integrate “the Jain community (to) become a vital member of this international consortium of religions” at what is considered “the world’s first fully inter-religious university.”

This first-ever formal academic program in Jainism by an institution of higher learning in the United States was made possible, in part, by a $40 million donation by D avid and Joan Lincoln, an Arizona couple who previously gave $10 million to the school.

With the donation and their association with the International School for Jain Studies, the Lincolns hope to bring greater academic awareness to the Jain faith as well as provide the university with enough resources to train clergy in other religions, such as Islam and Judaism.

“I was just interested in the religion,” Lincoln explained, adding that he was most attracted to the religion’s elements of peace, love and togetherness.

Speaking on behalf of the Federation of Jain Associations in North America and the Jain Center of Southern California, Rajen Dhami said every effort will be made to support Claremont Lincoln University’s endeavors in adding Jainism to its curriculum.

“We at JAINA and the JCSC are committed to support the Jain studies program at the CLU to ensure that it grows,” Dhami said, adding that the Jain Center has at its disposal thousands of books on the Indian faith available to the university. Dhami also presented Lincoln with gifts from the Buena Park-based Jain Center.

“The Jain partnership represents one of the most significant steps in applied religion that the university has taken so far. Not only is Jainism the first Eastern tradition represented in the university, but the ‘Jain way of life,’ which includes compassion to all life forms, beautifully intersects with and extends the university’s educational offerings,” Dr. Philip Clayton, the provost of Claremont Lincoln University, said.

With a curriculum in development, Claremont Lincoln University plans to offer classes as early as the Spring semester of 2012 and Jainism courses in India as early as the Summer of 2012.

In working with the university to become a permanent member of the Claremont Lincoln consortium, the International School for Jain Studies donated a collection of books on Jainism to the institution’s library.

The International School of Jainism Studies is the fourth association to be affiliated with Claremont Lincoln University. Three co-founders and affiliates established the university, including the Claremont School of Theology, the Academy for Jewish Religion (California) and the Islamic Center of Southern California.

C.M. Ramachandran Chettiar: A Great Tamil Scholar

-G. Satyamurty

C.M. Ramachandran Chettiar's contribution to the Tamil literary world is substantial. G. Satyamurty recollects the tremendous work done by this scholar from Coimbatore

There was no activity related to Tamil and religion in Coimbatore for more than five decades that he did not associate himself with. The author of more than 60 published works and many more yet to see the light of the day, C.M. Ramachandran Chettiar's writings included short stories, essays, poems, drama and a book on history. Fondly called “Kovai kizhar”, he was a Tamil encyclopedia. Marudhachala Adigalar of Perur Aadheenam, in his preface to a recent book on Chettiar, authored by C.R. Elangovan, points out that Chettiar's contribution to the literary world was notable.

He was the first to write a history of Kongu Region. His “Siruvar Sivagnanam”, is on Saiva philosophy. His “Idhuvo Engal Kovai” and “Engal Naatuppuram” delineate the culture and lifestyle of Coimbatore. His “Koyil poonaigal”, “Kaaterumai” and “Veeteli” ridicule the foibles of society. Lamentably, a number of his works are still in manuscript form in Perur Tamil Kalloori library.

Elangovan describes him as a historian, epigraphist, excellent litterateur and an administrator of spiritual institutions, and regrets that much of Chettiar's service to Coimbatore and the literary world remains unknown to this day.

Born on Nov 30, 1888, in an affluent family , Chettiar began his education in London Mission School, Coimbatore.

He did his B.A at Presidency College. His love for Tamil was nurtured by U.V. Swaminatha Iyer, affectionately called “Thamizh thatha”, who was a doyen of Tamil literature in the early part of 20{+t}{+h} century.

Chettiar won accolades even as a college student for his speech on “Kamba Ramayanamum , Kandhapuranaum” which he delivered in the presence of Maraimalai Adigal, another savant of the Tamil literary world.

He contributed substantially to the promotion of education—by helping establish schools and libraries. A member of the Chennai Manuscript Centre and also Thanjavur Saraswathi Mahal Library, he was an expert in reading and publishing works written on palm leaves. He headed the District Library Authority, too. He became a member of the Senate of Madras University in 1943 and 1946.

The Kongu factor

His “Kongu Nattu Varalaru” is a well documented book on Kongu Region.

Chettiar recalled the Purananooru poems of Enicheri Mudamosiyar, Kovoorkizhar and Maangudi Marudhanar, and pointed out that Senggundram Kiahzar, Ponmudiyar, Perundhalai Chattanar, Andhikeeranar, Karuvurkadhapillai, Karuvur Perunchathukatthu Boothanar and Karuvur Kosanar all hailed from the Kongu region. He compiled the salient features of literary works of Jains in this region including “Perungadhai”, “Nannool”, “Silappadhikara urai” of Adiyarku Nallar, Kongu Mandala Sadhagam and also “Sadhagam” “Kuravanchi” “Kovai Pillai Thamizh ”.

He became the Secretary of the Kovai Thamizh Sangham founded by his teacher, the Tamil scholar Thiruchittrambalam Pillai, and in his tenure helped publish a number of significant literary works. Apart from inviting great Tamil scholars to Coimbatore, Kovai Kizhar also conducted special examinations in Tamil. Chettiar authored “Kadavul vanakkam”, “Ilaignar padalgal', “Sundararum Kongunaadum”, “Thiruperur Aaraychi”and ”Marudhamalai maanmiyam”. He published a monthly magazine called “Kongu Malar” which became the literary voice of the region between 1934 and 37.It accommodated the history, the litterateurs and the spiritual centres of the Kongu region.

Treasure trove

Elangovan terms “Kongu Malar” a treasure trove of research work. Chettiar was its editor for almost five years. He also edited “Siddhantham”, a magazine brought out by Saiva Siddhantha Samajam of Chennai, from 1947 to 1953.

Another significant contribution was the publication of literary treasures that lay hidden in the palm leaves and old manuscripts. Thus came into being works such as “Chozhan poorva pattayam”, “Kongu desa rasakkal” and “Perur Kovai”.

With the help of the first Union Finance Minister, R.K. Shanmugham Chetty, Chettiar established a Tamil college at the Perur Aadhenam premises in 1953. He became its Principal later and even in his old age, he used to take classes at least once a week.

Tamil giants like Thiru.Vi.Ka., R.P. Sethupillai, Kavimani Desiga Vinayagam Pillai and Gnaniar Swamigal were his good friends. Chettiar was immensely interested in geography, and was awarded Fellowship in the Royal Geographical Society.

Summing up his life, Chettiar said, “I remained always contented and had peace of mind. Though I was not very affluent, neither did I suffer poverty. I earned enough and left it to my offspring to live in peace. I always remained healthy as well.”

He breathed his last on Dec 3, 1969.

Article Courtesy: The Hindu

Study on the concept of dharma

K. SRINIVAS

This anthology of 19 well-researched articles examines the concept of dharma from semantic, cultural, and religious points of view. ‘Dharma’ is considered the fulcrum of Indian civilisation, since it is not affected by any linguistic, sectarian, or regional differences. The term itself is “untranslatable” for it has several connotations. Paul Horsch, in his article, attempts to examine the evolution of the term ‘dharma(n)’ from its Indo-Aryan origin to the position it occupies in the intellectual history of India, tracing the various phases it has gone through.

Place of dharma
Discussing the place of ‘dharman’ in the Rig Veda, Joel P. Brereton says the term is not considered central to the lexicon, although it occurs as many as 63 times. There are Indo-European parallels to ‘dharman.’ Its Iranian equivalent in old Persian is “remedy”, which is totally different from the Indo-Aryan conception. Patrick Olivelle, who looks at the semantic history of the term, concludes that “it is likely that dharma was part of the specialised vocabulary associated with royalty, especially because of its frequent use within the royal consecration (râjasûya).”

Rupert Gethin seeks to understand the concept of ‘dhamma’ (of early Buddhism) mentioned in the Nikâyas. He is of the view that it stands for something sublime, peaceful, subtle, and trans-rational. Collett Cox discusses how the term “dharma” is used in ‘Sarvastivada Abhidharma,’ highlighting its relationship with other terms such as bhâva, svabhâva, dravya, and svalaksana in the inter-traditional context. The Buddhist scholasticism shows that the concept is, at once, stable enough for any sectarian debate and elastic enough for further refinements.

In Jaina literature, Olle Qvarnström says, dharma is interpreted as virtuous behaviour, behaviour in accordance with intrinsic nature, and behaviour in terms of activity (pravritti) and non-activity (nivritti), and cosmic order. Richard W. Lariviere’s article titled “Dharmasastra, Custom, Real Law and Apocryphal ‘Smrtis’” attempts to establish that “the whole of dharma corpus can be viewed as a record of custom.” Albrecht Wezler maintains that, since dharma is the power of supporting the cosmos and sustaining life, it is a common feature in all ritual and socio-ethical spheres and, for that reason, the diachronic changes in custom and convention are often overlooked.

Dharma in Ramayana
John Brockington is of the opinion that, in the Ramayana, the meaning of dharma changes according to the attitudes of the “transmitters.” But, in a majority of cases, the term connotes a sense of propriety or morality. James Fitzgerald argues that, in the Mahabharata, the term is chiefly associated with action. Ashok Aklujkar examines the ramifications of dharma in terms of socio-linguistics of ancient India and of assumptions and predilections of current Indology by taking into account Patanjali’s Vyakarana-mahabhasya and Bartruhari’s Trikandi.

Johannes Bronkhorst explains how the expression ‘dharma’ is used in a variety of senses in the Indian philosophical systems in general and in the Visesika system in particular. How dharma is treated variously in the Mimamsa Sutras is discussed by Francis X Clooney, S.J. However, there is a reasonably well established definition which holds ‘dharma’ is an injunctive verbal force (codanâ), a Vedic “enactment” that has to be “judiciously implemented.” Taking a look at ‘dharma’ in the context of Appayya Dikshita’s discourse of the refutation of a unified knowledge system of the Purvamimamsa and the Uttaramimamsa, Sheldon Pollock tries to establish that both the Mimamsas accept that, in the mantra, the word ‘dharma’ is used only to refer to action whose end-result is perishable.

Donald R. Davis, Jr. argues that ‘dharma’ is derived not from the Vedic literature but from acâra. As a concept and idea, it is different from Dharmasastra, which contains the textual reflections on the concept of dharma. Dominik Wujastyk is of the view that Dharmasâstra not only regulates the conduct of individuals in society but also sets out the objectives of the traditional system of medicine, ayurveda.

Frank J. Korom examines the family resemblance between ‘ethnographic’ Dharmarâj and ‘textual’ Dharmarâj, although there is hardly any evidence to show that contemporary traditions have anything to do with medieval textual tradition. John Taber provides some invaluable reflections on William Halbfass’ study of Kumârila’s ahimsa and Dharma purely from the philosophical point of view. In an interesting article, Paul Hacker observes that Hinduism is the religion of Aryan cultural community and it is often denoted by the word ‘dharma,’ which encompasses all those practices that represent Aryan-ness.

The editor of this anthology, Patrick Olivelle, needs to be congratulated on having provided the posterity with a treasure of knowledge on the concept of dharma.

DHARMA — Studies in its Semantic, Cultural and Religious History:
Edited by Patrick Olivelle
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
41, U.A. Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar
Delhi-110007.
Rs. 1195.

The Sindia Clan and its affiliation to Jainism

-Mahavir Sanglikar

The Sindia Clan and its affiliation to Jainism

Sindia is a famous clan of Maratha community in Maharashtra. It is known as Shinde in Maharashtra and Sindia in North India. The original name is Sind.

The Sindias originally belong to Naagvansh. Their flag bears the symbol of Kobra. According to some rock inscriptions and copper plates, their forefather was Ajaanbahu Sind. He was the son of Dharanendra of Ahichhatra. Ajaanbahu married a kadamb princess and got three sons from her. They founded the Sind Clan.

This Dharanendra was a very famous king in the period of Parshwa, the 23rd Teerthankar of Jainism. Parshwa also was a Naaganshi prince who became an ascetic. Dharanendra and his wife Padmavati were in trouble from Kamath, a sage. Parshwa helped them to escape from the trouble. Kamath was angry with Parshwa and one day made some trouble for him. This time, Dharanendra and Padmavati came to help Parshwa. This story is famous one still now in Jain community. They have given it a mythical touch, by making Dharanendra and Padmavati actual Cobras. Padmavati is worshipped as a Goddess especially by Jain women. In most of the Jain temples, idols of Dharanendra and Padmavati are seen.

The Ambaabaai or Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur was family deity of Sindias. This Mahalaxmi is nothing other than Padmavati. Later the temple was converted to Mahalaxmi temple.

The branches of this clan ruled from Karhatak (Karad in South Maharashtra), Junnar (Pune), Sindwadi (Bellary, Karnataka), Elburga (Andhra Pradesh), Chakrakot (Bastar) etc.

The rock inscription at Bhairanmatti near Bagalkot in Bijapur district of Karnatak gives genealogy of the Sindias. It starts from Sind Pulikal and ends at Sevyaras (973 C.E. to 1076 C.E.). A detailed history of this clan is given in it.

Many rock inscriptions in Karnataka and Maharashtra show Scindia clan’s affection to Jainism.

Sindia’s affiliation with Jainism is still continuing. A famous Jain ascetic of present day Adhbhut Baba is a prince from Sindia dynasty of Gwalior. Jyotiraditya Sindia, Member of Parliament and the son of late Madhavrao Sindia has publicly announced that he follow Jain principles and is a Jain. Yashodhara Raje Scindia, sister of Madharrao Scindia has wished to become a Jain nun.

You can see gient rock Jain images  and a beautiful Jain temple in Gwalior fort.

Chamundraya and Shravanbelagola | Karnataka History

Dr. H.A. Parshwanath

Chamundaraya1, the minister of the Gangas, has carved an indelible record in the glorious history of Shravanabelagola. He was a politician, commander-in-chief, religious patron and generic writer who enriched the culture of the place and Karnataka. He played an important role in the history of Shravanabelagola.

It is said that he hailed from the southern part of Madurai. His mother Kalaladevi was instrumental in all his religious contributions to the land. His wife Ajithadevi, son Jinadevanna, sister Pulavvae and brother Nagaverma proved to be the earnest devotees of Jina and adorned Gangas. He was born probably in A.D. 940. The guidance of Acharya Simhanandi stood as the rock stone in his achievements and moulded the personality. The association of Chavundaraya with Marasimha III has blended together in a harmonious way. Chavundaraya was a Brahmakshatriya by inheritance. His grandfather Govindamayyiah laid the foundation of religious fervour. Govindamayyiah and his younger brother Ishwaraiah lived together like Bhima and Arjuna and served under Marasimha. Mahabalaiah, the father of Chamundaraya was known for his generosity, ability and virtuosity. Chavundaraya fought for Marasimha and defeated Chaladanka Ganga and also Madurachayya. He fought bravely against Nolambas and supported Marasimha. He was called Veramarthanda due to his valour and bravery. He also defeated Rajaditya and Vajvala.

He developed interest in the Jaina religion by studying the works of Acharya Jiansena and Acharya Gunabadhra. He propagated Jainism through his meritorious works. He was a prolific writer in Kannada and Sanskrit languages. He wrote Chavundarayapurana (A.D. 978), also called as Trishashtishalakapurusharu. He adopted the gist of Mahapurana in this work. He wrote Charitrasara in Sanskrit and the work deals with Jaina ceremonies and rituals observed by Gruhastas and Munis. He had a great patronage for the poets Nagaverma and Ranna. Ranna composed Gadayuddha and Ajithanathapurana. Ranna named his son as Raya as an index of his affection for Chavundaraya. Nagaverma wrote Chadombudhi.

He was an ardent disciple of Ajithasenacharya of Bankapur and Nemichandracharya who inspired him to serve the cause of Jaina religion. He was called by various titles such as Veeramarthanda, Ranarangasinga, Samaradurandara, Samyaktva Ratnakara, Vairikulakaladanda, Bujavikrama, Chaladankaganga, Samaraparashurama, Pratipaksha Rakshasa, Bhatamari, Subatachudamani, Brahmakshatra Shikamani, Gunaratnabhushana, Bhujavikrama, Ripukulasamhari, Sandivigrahi, Tribhuvanaveera, Chamupathi, Kavijanashekara, Shauchabharana, Devaraja and Satya Yudishtira. He has etched his image in the fields of literature, religion, politics and art and architecture. He was the great son of Karnataka. Nemichandracharya also influenced him immensely and hence Chavundaraya constructed a temple in his name. The Acharya dedicated Gommatasara, the amalgamative work of Dhavala and Mahadhavala as a recognition of his devotion and dedication to Jaina heritage. He called him Vera Marthandi and immortalised his name.

Engraving Of Bahubali Idol
The magnificent monolithic statue of Lord Gommateshwara atop the Indragiri was the greatest contribution of Chavundaraya. His revered mother Kalaladevi was greatly influenced by the narration of Bahubali's meditation and sacrifice imparting the value of indefiniteness of life as depicted by Siddantha Chakravarthi Nemichandra Swamiji in his discourse. Bahubali stood as a symbol of sacrifice and Bharatha as that of possessiveness of wealth and pleasure of the kingdom. She dreamt the vision of Lord Gommateshwara and had expressed here desire to have a darshan in Paudanapura where the statue of Bahubali was installed by Bharatha. She gave up taking food and water till she had the glimpse of Lord Bahubali. But it was a difficult task to travel to Paudanapura and also she learnt that the statue of Bahubali was encircled with serpents and thick forests. Furthermore it was an arduous task to have the glimpse of Lord Gommateshwara situated in the thick forests of Paudanapura. In order to fulfill the desire of his mother he proceeded towards Paudanapura and stayed in Kalvappu2 for some time on the way. Goddess Padmavathi, appeared and blessed him in his dream and advised him to bow the arrows towards Indragiri from Chandragiri to have the darshan of Bahubali, according to Panchabanas Bhujabalacharita. Eventually the collasal statue of Bahubali was engraved by Chavundaraya spreading the message of sacrifice, nonviolence and truth to the world.

According to Govinda Pai the National poet the installation ceremony was held on Monday, 14th March, A.D. 981. The sculptor of this mega statue is said to be Arishtanemi (Bharatoja). Chavundaraya himself conducted the first mahamasthakabhishekha on 14-3-981. He donated 88 villages generating 96,000 varahas and its utility for the pooja celebration of Lord Gommateshwara.

Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar
Tyagada Brahmadeva pillar on Indragiri goes in the name of Chavundaraya. The pillar measures about ten feet and is encircled with artistic flowers and tendrils. There is engraving of Sri Chavundaraya with Chamaradharis and his guru Nemichandracharya in the lower portion of the pillar. The northern side of the pillar contains the inscription narrating the valour of Chavundaraya.

Akhanda Bagilu
This was also said to be the contribution of Chavundaraya and it is a good piece of art and architecture of the Gangas. The lintel portion of it shows the GajaLakshmi in sitting posture which is a beautiful piece of art with the devi holding flowers in her hand.

The other sculptural and architectural contribution of Chavundaraya include Sri Kushmandini devi in the form of Gulakayajji, Bhadrashale, Patala Kamba, Yaksha Kamba and also the steps to Indragiri.

Chavundaraya Basadi
This temple is a two storeyed structure and was constructed with Lord Neminatha as the main deity during the period A.D. 982-85. This occupies a unique position among the 14 jinalayas spread out on the Chandragiri. The temple resembles Pallava style of architecture and however it also resembles the influence of Gangas style of architecture. One can see the inscription, 'Sri Chavundaraya Madisidam' (constructed by Chavundaraya) near the main entrance. This temple is called Trailokyaranjana and Boppa Jinalaya in Hoysala inscriptions. It has two sanctum sanctoria with simple walls and artistic lintels. The inscription (A.D. 1138) found at the pedestal of Neminatha Tirthankara describes that it was installed by Eachana the son of Gangaraja who was in the court of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana. It was carved by Gangachari (Vardhamanachari), the son of Hoysalachari. The Yaksha and Yakshi of Sri Neminatha Tirthankara were also carved by Gangachari. His son Jinadevanna added some portion of this temple i.e. the upper portion of it. Chavundaraya basadi is flourished with exquisite art and is one of the master pieces of Jain temples.

Establishment of Dharmapeetha
He intended to establish a Dharmapeetha to guard the religious values and as a result Siddanthachakravarthi Nemichandracharya became the head of Dharmapeetha. It was later called Charukeerthi Peetha and in the later days it was considered as the seat of Shravana culture of Jainism in Karnataka.

Eventually he sacrificed his immense wealth and pleasure and also relinquished political power near the Tyagada Kamba and attained salvation through sallekhana in A.D. 989.
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1. Chamundaraya - A controversy was raged regarding the use of the name Chavunda and Chamunda and only to conclude that both the forms can be used.
2. Kalvappu - It is the primitive name of Shravanabelagola.
---------------
Bibliography:
1. Shravanabelagola Ondhu Samikshe: Ed. Dr.G.S.Shivarudrappa (Bangalore University Publication, 1983)
2. Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume: Ed. Dr.T.G.Kalghatgi (S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981)
3. Veeramathanda Chavundaraya: Ed. Dr.S.P.Patil (1993)

A description of Jainism from Dabistan-e-Madahib (1)

Dabistan-e-Madahib (School of Manners) is an extremely rare andunusual examination of several religions, written around 1655 in Farsi. It has been assmed that the author may have been a Muslim,however a careful examinations shows that the author was in fact aParsi of Sipasis or Abadis sect. The author was either originallyfrom Iran, or a recent descendant of an immigrant from Iran.

The author was born during the rule of Jehangir in a Mobed (ParsiPriest) family. He spent time in Patna, Kasmir, Lahor, Surat andSrikakul (Orissa). He must have been a person of great scolarshipand curiosity. He mentions numerous interviews with scholars ofnumerous faiths.
In chapter II, on doctaries of the Indian (Hindu) people, variousIndian traditions are described.
The section XI "On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha" isactually all about Jainism. It presents an extremely rare view ofJainism, as viewed by an outsider. India was then country underMuslim rule, however the author's perspective is neither Muslim norHindu.

There are a couple of copies of the text in Khudabaksh Library.http://kblibrary.nic.in/Vol16/BP138.htm
The translation is by David Shea and Anthony Troyer done in 1843. Atthat time Jainism was not well known, and there appear to be someflaws intranslations.

The translators' notes are included below.

The translators had some difficulty with the word "Srivara". It mustbe from prakrit "sevada" i.e. swta-pata in Sanskrit, a term fromwhite-clad monks. The term Yati is applicable to to Swetambaras andDigambaras, but it seems that the author was mostly familiar with Swetambaras.

Obviously Lunugi=followers of Lonka Shah and Pujaris=murtipujak.
Yashwant Malaiya
---

SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF BUDDHA.
These sectaries are also called Jatis.*1 They have no belief inincarnations or Avatars of the Deity, but they admit the trans­migration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several otherdogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more detestablethan the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune befals anyone of them, they say: "Hast thou perchance done some good to aBrahman, or drunk some water of the bone devourer: so they call theGanges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, throwtheir bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act.

The Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; onwhich account they do not like to pass through water, for fear thatan animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food,never put their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, theyfilter it first through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that noliving animal may remain in it, and then steep this piece of clothawhile in water, in order that, if a living being stick thereto, itmay be separated, and take its place in the liquid.

A great number of the Banians or traders are of this sect; for themost part they sell corn, and some get a livelihood as servants. Thedurvishes of this class are called Srivaras and Jatis.*2 They pluckthe hair of their head and beard by means of tweezers.*3 When theytravel, they carry a besom of the bark of a soft tree with them, andout of regard for the life of animals, they sweep the road with itbefore they put down their feet, that no living insect may bedestroyed. When they speak, they hold a hand­kerchief before theirmouth, not to swallow a fly or other insect.

They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy andsanctity; these they call Jatis, who never behold the face of awoman. Those of this sect who are married, called Grihastfa,* showgreat regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of respect,they scarce dare bend their body. When­ever they receive a Jati intheir house, they do what­ever he orders, according to their power.

They are divided into two classes: the Lunugi and Pujaris. The firstare those who adore God as one, and think him free from allimperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and whoworship no idol. The Pujaris venerate the image of a deity, and havetemples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at thetime of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take onlyas much food as may not cause a privation to the people of thehouse: thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. Theydrink no cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever anybody has warm water for bathing, they take a little of it, andhaving thus collected sufficient water, they let it cool and thendrink it.

Similar to the durvishes of both classes is a third sect, calledMaha-atma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they donot pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulatemoney, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and taketo them a wife.
Farzanah Khushi says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a srivara,and requested him to give me a full account, which may be deemedtrue beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related asfollows: "The men of my faith may live retired from the world, ordevoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are manyof them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge."

One of the Mahaatmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich mandevoted her­self to his service; one day she complained to him of theunkindness of her husband; the srivara gave no answer; wherefore thewoman said: "Another time I will not wait on thee, because thoutakest no interest in me." The srivara rejoined: "If even thy visitwere agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee." He thentook up a bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to thewoman, saying: "Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee." Thewoman returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon astone, intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband enteredinto the room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon thestone. When night fell in, they shut the door of the house. Thestone at every moment jumped from its place, knocked against theboard of the door, and fell back: the woman and her husband wereastonished. The man asked his wife the reason of it, and she, fromfear, told him what had taken place. The man rose and opened thedoor of the house; the stone was set in motion, and rolled on untilit reached the house of the Mahaatma.

Many other similar stories are told of the Srivaras. Khushi saidthat he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power ofincantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declaredthat this man was really a Jati, but not a Maha-atma.

The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number ofSrivaras and their followers. From them he knew Meher chand, a Lunu,in the year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotarah, which isunder the dominion of Jodpur Marawar, he found also Siva rama, aPujari, in Mirta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one namedJagna, a Banian, in Rawel Pandi: he was adorned with all the goodqualities of Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, hebought it of him and set it free.

This sect do what­ever they can for the liberation of living beings.Many of them are rajas in several places and countries. When onebrings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and is disposed to killit, they come from their shops and buy the animal at a high price;thus it has been seen that, having assembled from person to takecare of them. It is said, that in Guze­all hands a great number ofsheep, they appointed a rat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one day,a Musel­man Durvish sat down before his shop, and having pickedvermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed;the Durvish said: "If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;"the Banian offered a pie;*1 the other wanted more and more, untilthe bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which theBanian paid for the liberation of the offensive insect.

Hafiz Shirazi says:
"Avoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest,For in my book of laws there is no crime but this."

Notes:
1. More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section appears toapply more properly to the Jainas, that is, to one of the greatdivisions of the followers of Buddha. The Jainas are subdivided intoa great num­ber of tribes and religious sects, a long series of whichis enumerated in the work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363).

2. In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the Jatis, or Yatis, alsocalled Sevras among the Jainas of Guzerat and Marwar. According tothe same authority (Transact. R. A. S., vol. III. p. 344), these aredistin­guished from the Sravakas, as the laity of the Jainas arecalled in that country.

According to Major de la Maine (work quoted,vol. I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of theearlier Jains or Arhats. "Sravakas," says Doctor Buchanan Hamilton(ibid., p. 531), "is the name given to the Jains in the districts ofBahar and Patna." The three authors just quoted agree in statingthat the priests of the Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistanreads , Srivarah, which may be correct "the electof happiness."

3. Lunchita-kesa, "hair-pluckers," is one of the nicknames given tothe Swetambaras, "clad in white," a sect of the Jainas (Colebrooke,work quoted, p. 551).

4. "A householder."

Cultuaral Heritage of Jain Religion

Albert Einstein remarked that the eternal mystery of the world is its intelligibility. True religion fastens to this element of intelligibility and creates a system of thought and action which leads to true harmony and bliss. And it is indeed so with Jainism.

Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world. The term Jaina means the devotee of Jinas (Spiritual Victors). Jinas are called so because they have won victory over passions of attachment, aversion, etc. that defile the soul. As a result, they have attained omniscience and supreme bliss. They are enlightened human teachers. They are also called Tirthankaras (Ford-makers). Here in the context, ford means tirthankara's words and teaching which help living beings to cross the ocean of misery or transmigratory existence. In every half-cycle of Time there flourish twenty-four Tirthankaras. The twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the present half-cycle of Time is Vardhamana, known as Mahavira.

Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. in a royal knightly family in Kshatriyakunda, a wellknown city of the ancient kingdom of Videha (modern Bihar). At the age of thirty, to find out the path to Ultimate Release from all misery he renounced the world, he embarked upon a spiritual career and lived a life of a Jaina ascetic. After twelve years of severe spiritual discipline of self-culture, self-control, austerities and deep meditation, he totally exterminated attachment completely and attained omniscience (kevalajnana). He became a perfected soul and prophet (Tirthankara). During the next thirty years of his career as a prophet he travelled on foot from place to place giving his message of peace and goodwill for the welfare of all living beings, without any discrimination of race, class, caste or sex. Eleven men accepted his spiritual leadership and became his chief disciples (ganadhara). He founded the order of nuns with Candanabala as its first member. The number of male and female ascetics increased and reached upto about 50,000. The lay followers were about half a million.

Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshva, the penultimate Tirthankara, who lived about 250 years earlier in Varanasi. The historicity of Parshva is proved by the modern historians and scholars. So Mahavira was not the founder of Jaina religion. He was the rejuvenator, propagator and exponent of Jaina religion which had been taught by Parshva and other omniscient teachers of his ever present and imperishable Jaina tradition.

Initially the followers of Jainism lived throughout the Ganges Valley. Around the time of Ashoka (250 B.C.) most Jainas migrated to the city of Mathura on the Yamuna river. Later, many travelled westword to Rajasthan and Gujarat and south word to Maharashtra and Karnataka, where Jainism rapidly grew in popularity.

The Jaina canon contains some sixty texts and is divided into three main group, the Purva (old texts : 14 books), the Angas (limbs : 12 books) and the Angabahya(subsidiary canon). Not all are extant. In addition to the threefold canon itself, there are extensive commentaries written in Prakrit and Sanskrit by the monk scholars. The Tattvartha Surta, written in the second century A.D., belongs to this group. Its author Umasvati is held in high esteem by both Svetambar and Digambar tradition. It for the first time presents in Sanskrit the entire canonical material on various subjects in aphoristic style and in classified form succinctly and systematically.

In Jainism, the essence of religion lies in an intuitive apprehension of the purity of consciousness. According to Jainism, the love of truth is inherent in each self, but it requires spiritual exercise for its manifestation. Once this love of truth is manifested, it will lead the self to liberation sooner or later.

The conduct of a person, in the Jain view cannot be isolated from his way of life. For the true Jaina, Truth and Values are inseperable. This is where right knowledge comes in. As Acharya Samantabhadra in his Yuktyanushasanam (Verse 15) says :

"Without knowing the real nature of things, all moral distinctions between bondage and liberation, merit and demerit, pleasure and pain will be absurd."

The values of Jain religion are based on five vows viz.- non-violence, devotion to truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession. The entire life style of the Jain Shravak and the Jain Sadhu emanates from these vows and the foremost is non-violence.

Ahimsa, non-violence, has been the sheet-anchor of Jainism. Ahimsa is one of the basic virtues. No where else in the other religious traditions has this basic virtue been so scientifically, scrupulously and thoroughly integrated with the main doctrine. Jainism is the only tradition which has consistently allowed this tenet soak into the very essentials of its teachings and practices. This singular uncompromising emphasis on Ahimsa is the special and exclusive feature of Jainism. In Jainism, Ahimsa is not mere human sympathy; it is empathy, the urge to identify oneself completely with other persons, other living beings, with the whole universe.

Bhagwan Mahavir said, "If you kill someone, it is yourself you kill. If you overpower someone, it is yourself you overpower. If you torment some one, it is yourself you torment. If you harm someone, it is yourself you harm." A wise man knows this and so he does not kill, nor does he overpower or torment anyone.

The heart of Jainism is non-violence. Jainism is a religion of compassion, universal love and friendliness. It aims at the welfare of all living beings, and not of man alone. It maintains that living beings are infinite, all so called empty spaces in the universe are filled with minute living beings. According to it, there are countless single-sense organisms that take the subtlest possible units of material elements -earth, water, fire and air - as their bodies. Fresh earth is alive but when it is baked it becomes dead. Fresh water from a well, etc. is alive but when it is boiled or influenced by mixing some other substance it becomes dead. Vegetables, trees, plants, fruits, etc. do have life but when they are dried, cut or cooked they die. To avoid injury to them as far as possible, man is advised to use them discreetly. He should resist from polluting water, air, etc. and thereby perpetrating violence to them. Worms, insects, animals, etc. help in keeping ecological balance thus they help man. And domestic animals have for ages been a constant and faithful aid to man in civilizing himself. From the ultimate standpoint of their original pure pristine state, all living beings are uniform in their nature. Jainism teaches to look upon them as upon one's ownself. Inflicting injury to them is inflicting injury to one's ownself.

In Jain philosophy Ahimsa is said to be the supreme religion and himsa is considered to be source of all evil and of all miseries. Ahimsa is not limited to not harming the human beings, it extends to all living beings. This philosophy believes in the unity of life and regards all living beings as equal. He who can be cruel to animals can be cruel to human beings too. Further, cruelty is not only an aspect of external behaviour, but it is also an inner evil tendency. He who is cruel at heart will behave cruelly towards animals as well as human beings. He who is compassionate at heart, will behave compassionately towards all. Moreover, the jain religion believes in the cycle of birth and rebirth.

It is one of the tenets of Jainism that all living beings desire life and not death. No one has the right to take away the life of any other being; to kill a living being is the greatest of sins. Life is dear to everyone, and we must have respect for life. Not only "Love and Let Live" but "Live and Help Others Live" should be our principle. Just as the head of a family looks after the welfare of the members of the family, a human being, who enjoys the highest place in the evolution of life, should look after the welfare of other lower orders of creations.

In the universe, there are different forms, different orders, of life, such as human beings, animals, insects, trees and plants, bacteria and even still smaller lives which perhaps be seen only through the most powerful of microscopes. Jainism has classified all the living beings according to their sense organs. Jainism firmly believes that life is sacred, irrespective of caste, colour, creed or nationality and therefore not only physical or mental injury to life should be avoided, but all possible kindness should be shown towards all the living things. This should be the true spirit of Ahimsa. Jainism believes that more weapons are in no way an effectiveanswer to weapons. Lord Mahavir has emphatically declared in "Acharanga Sutra" that one weapon may be stronger or superior to another, but the path of Ahimsa or peace remains unsurpassed. Fire cannot be put out by fire. It is our duty to stop adding fuel to the fire. Jaina scriptures say that a piece of blood-stained cloth cannot be washed with blood, we need water to do it. To achieve peace, world peace, we have to stop the race of armaments and we have to have an unshakeable faith in Samyag Darshana in the effective validity of Ahimsa. The second great vow is Truth. To speak the truth, one require moral courage. Only those who have conquered greed, fear, anger, jealousy, ego, vulgarity, frivolity etc. can speak the truth when required.

Jainism always advocates the generous view, the view that there can be a grain of truth in what the other persons say, Anekantadrishti, for truth is relative. As you have full faith in what is truth from your point of view, so too one should make room for the view-point of others. Thus, Anekantavada (Theory of many-sidedness) enables one to tolerate and co-ordinate a wide range of points-of-view in a spirit of co-operation even if at times, these may be contradictory. This is the true method involving ceaseless endeavour to search out truth. To regard everything from a relative point of view and to see an element of truth in everything, this is Anekantavada. Not 'mine is the truth' but 'truth is mine' should be one's motto.

Anekantavada is the heart of Jainism. It constitutes its most significant contribution to religious thought, and especially in the field of ethics. It teaches that the kingdom of truth can be reached through plurality of ways. It also teaches not to impose one's own thoughts or views on others, and to try to reconcile the thoughts or view-points of others with one's own. This principle, therefore, if earnestly put into practice shows us how to overcome our personal view of things, which is often short-sighted, selfish and partial. It shows us how to remove discord and disharmony and establish concord and harmony in life, by being catholic and tolerant in our outlook and attiude towards others.

The principle of Anekantavada should be applied to every field of life. It shows how to respect candid opinions of all free thinkers of the world; the roots of modern democracy could be traced in this Jaina principle. It establishes unity in diversity. It promises reconciliation of divergent or conflicting statements, thoughts, ideologies, systems, religions etc. The principle of Anekantavada therefore can be a great instrument for promoting peaceful co-existence and unity in the world.

History of Jain Religion

Dr. Vilas Sangave

INTRODUCTIONJainism is a religion propounded by Jina, one who has conquered the worldly passions and Jainas are the followers of Jina. According to the Jaina tradition, Lord Rsabhadeva was the first Jina of the present age who was born in very primitive times when people were illiterate and did not know any art. It is believed that Rsabhadeva was the first person to initiate the people into various arts and crafts like cooking, writing, making pottery, painting and sculpture and to establish the social institutions like marriage, family, Varna or class, education, etc. He taught the people how to behave in society, introduced social customs and manners and showed the way of performing religious practices. He was also known as the first Tirthankaras one who guides the people to attain liberation. Rsabhadeva was followed by 23 Tirthankaras and they tried to reform the society and preach the religion as handed over to them from the times of Rsabhadeva.

Even though according to the above tradition, the Jainas claim to have a hoary antiquity, it should be remembered that so far no historical evidence has been brought forward to establish beyond doubt the real existence of the first 22 Tirthankaras. The last two Tirthankaras, namely, Parsvanatha, the 23rd, and Mahavira, the 24th, are proved as historical personages. There are various literary evidences in the Jaina and Buddhist texts which presuppose the existence of a Nirgrantha Order headed by Parsvanatha before the advent of Mahavira and therefore, it can be said that there is much truth in the Jaina tradition that Mahavira was no more than promulgator of an older Nirgrantha Order.

Parsvanatha flourished towards the end of the ninth century B.C., 250 years before Mahavira. He was a religious teacher of great eminence and had to fight against the Brahmanic tyranny of caste system and the preponderance of 'himsa' (killing) of animals in Vedic sacrifices which was gradually filtering into the East from the Western part of India. He, therefore, threw open the doors of his religion to all persons without any distinction of caste, creed of sex. Both males and females could enter the Order of Parsvanatha on the basis of equality. He preached the four great vows, Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truth), Asteya (abstinence from stealing) and Aparigraha (non-attachmnent to worldly things) and emphasized the necessity of observing strict asceticism as a means for the attainment of salvation. Moreover, Parsvanatha divided the followers of Jaina religion into four categories according to sex and the strictness with which the members practice the injunctions laid down by the Jaina religion, namely, (i) Yatis or Sadhus or Munis, male ascetics: (ii) Arjikas or Sadhvis, female ascetics, (iii) Sravakas, male laity and (iv) Sravikas, female laity. This foundation of four orders in the community with their leaders to look after and supervise the conduct of members comprising the order shows that there was a pretty good arrangement to govern and organise the Jaina community from the earliest times. In fact, this is one of the important reasons put forward for the survival of Jainism in India as against its rival Buddhism.

After Parsvanatha, Mahavira became the leader of the Jaina Church. The religion preached by Mahavira was substantially the same as preached by his predecessor Parsvanatha. It is said that Mahavira added Brahmacarya (chastity, perhaps already included in Aparigraha) as the fifth great vow to the four great vows already preahed by Parsvanatha. Mahavira continued further the practice of fourfold division of the community and it is stated that at the time of his death there were 14000 Yatis, 36,000 Sadhvis, 1,59,000 Sravakas and 3,18,000 Sravikas. Mahavira had in all eleven Ganadharas. They were all religious teachers well-versed in Jaina scriptures. After the nirvana of Mahavira, the fifth Ganadhara Sudharman became the head of the Jaina scriptures. After the nirvana of Mahavira, the fifth Ganadhara Sudharman became the head of the Jaina scriptures. After the nirvana of Mahavira, the fifth Ganadhara Sudharman became the head of the Jaina Church, others either having attained salvation or 'Kevalinship' (omniscience) before the death of Mahavira. Sudharman is said to have narrated the Jaina Canon to his disciple Jambusvami in the manner he had heard from his Master. The Nirgrantha Sramanas of the present times are all spiritual descendants of the monk Arya Sudharman, the rest of the Ganadharas having left no descendants.

From the history of Jaina religion upto Mahavira it appears that sects and sub-sects had not arisen till that time. But later on, we find that various schisms arose in the Jaina community as a result of which Jainism was divided into several sects and sub-sects. There were various reasons which contributed to the splitting of Jainism in small sects and sub-sects. In the first place it may be mentioned that during the lifetime of Mahavira the spread of Jainism was limited and Jainism did not seem generally to have crossed the boundaries of the kingdoms of Anga and Magadha, comprising modern Bihar, Orissa and Western Bengal, where the Teacher mainly lived and concentrated his attention, but after the death of Mahavira, his successors and followers succeeded to a large extent in popularizing the faith throughout the length and breadth of India, so that it did not fail to enlist for a long period the support of kings as well as of commoners. As the number of adherents to the Jaina religion fast increased and as they were scattered practically in all parts of the country, the Ganadharas and religious pontiffs must have found it very difficult to look after and organise their followers. Naturally, different condition, customs, manners and ways of life prevailing in different parts of the country in different periods might have influenced in giving rise to various religious practices which might have ultimately resulted in creating factions among the followers of Jainism. Secondly, the religious doctrines, principles and tenets as they were enunciated and taught by Mahavira were not committed to writing during the lifetime of Mahavira or immediately after his death. The religious teachings of Mahavira were memorised by his immediate successors and they were thus handed down from one generation to another till they were canonised at the Council of Pataliputra in the early part of the 3rd century B.C. By this time much water had flown down the Ganges and what was canonised was not acceptable to all, who vigorously maintained that the canon did not contain the actual teachings of Mahavira. Again, there was the question of interpreting what had been canonised. As time passed on, differences of opinion regarding the interpretation of many doctrines arose and those who differed established a separate school of thought and formed themselves into a sect or sub-sect. Thirdly, it may be maintained that sects and sub-sects arise as a direct result of the revolt against the actions and policy of ruling priests or heads of the Church. Those who are at the helm of religious affairs are likely to swerve from their prescribed path and debase themselves or they are likely to be too strict in maintaining and preserving the religious practices in a manner they think it proper, without taking into account the needs of the changing conditions. In both the cases natural indignation is bound to occur on the part of the thinking population and there should not be any surprise if his accumulated indignation and discontent take a turn in formulating and organizing a separate sect. Martin Luther revolted against the high-handed policy of Popes and Priests in the Christian religion and founded the section of Protestants in that religion.

THE GREAT SCHISM
The history of the Jaina Church is full of references to the various schisms that had taken place from time to time and some of these schisms contributed to the rise of sects and sub-sects in the Jaina religion. There is no unity of opinion on the manner and nature of such schisms. According to Svetambaras, there were eight schisms, of which the first was caused by Mahavira's son-in-law, Jamali; and eighth, occurring in 83 A.D., gave rise to the Digambara sect. But the Digambaras seem to be ignorant of the earlier schisms. As the first seven schisms were comparatively unimportant, we may deal with only the eighth schism which ultimately split the community into two rival sects. In this connection it should be remembered that in order to prove the antiquity of their sect, both the sects have put forward their own theories regarding the origin of the other sect. As regards the origin of the Digambara sect, it is ascribed by the Svetambaras to Sivabhuti, who started the heretical sect of the Bhotikas in 83 A.D. This report is denied by the Digambaras; they maintain that they have preserved the original practices, but that, under the 8th successor of Mahavira, Bhadrabahu, a sect with laxer principles arose, and that this sect, which was called that of the Ardha-phalakas, developed into the present sect of Svetambaras in 80 A.D. Recent researches in Jaina history tend to prove the real existence of Ardhaphalaka sect and to consider the Ardhaphalakas as forerunners of the Svetambaras.
Really speaking, one cannot arrive at any definite conclusion from all these mutually conflicting traditions, and hence, it is almost impossible to fix an exact date for this great schism in the Jaina community. The main point of difference between the two sects was the question of considering whether the practice of nudity was an absolute necessity for achieving salvation. Taking into consideration these facts it seems probable that the separation of the sections of the Jaina Church took place gradually, an individual development going on in both the groups living at a great distance from one another, and that they became aware of their mutual difference about the end of the 1st century A.D. In view of this, it can safely be asserted that the origin of the two sects cannot be attributed to any specific incident which instantly divided the community into two opposite camps.

THE TWO MAIN SECTS
It is now necessary to see what is the exact difference between these two sects. Literally Digambara means 'sky-clad' and Svetambara means 'white-robed'. The monks of the Digambaras are naked while those of the Svetambaras wear white clothes. In fact there is very little difference between the two branches as regards the essentials of doctrine. For example, the most authoritative book of the Digambaras, namely Tattvarthadhigama Sutra by Umasvati, is one of the standard books also of the Svetambaras. However, there are some major as well as minor tenents on which the two sections are opposed to one another the major points of difference between the Digambaras and Svetambaras are as follows:

(i) While the Digambaras believe that a monk who owns any property, for example, wears clothes, cannot attain salvation. The Svetambaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.

(ii) The Digambaras hold the view that woman is not entitled to Moksa in this life. On the contrary the Svetambaras believe that women can reach Nirvana in this life.

(iii) According to the Digambaras, once a saint had attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience), needed no food, but could sustain life without eating. This view is not acceptable to the Svetambaras.
Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners, the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects do not agree:

(i) The Digambaras maintain that the embryo of Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, was not removed from the womb of Devananda, a Brahmin lady, to that of Trisala or Priyakarini, a Ksatriya lady, as the Svetambaras contend.

(ii) The Digambaras believe in the complete disappearance of the ancient sacred literature of the Jainas and as such disown the canonical books of the Svetambaras.

(iii) The Digambaras assert that Mahavira never married but according to the Svetambaras, Mahavira married Yasoda and had a daughter from her by name Anojja or Priyadarsana.
(iv) The Svetambaras consider Mallinatha, the19th Tirthankara, as a female but the Digambaras state that Mallinatha was a male.

(v) According to Digambaras, the Tirthankaras must be represented as nude and unadorned, and with downcast eyes. This need not be so according to Svetambaras.

THE MAJOR AND MINOR SUB-SECTSThe division of the Jaina Church into two sects mentioned above was only the beginning of splitting the religion into various sects. Each of the two great divisions again got sub-divided into different major and minor sub-sects according to the difference in acknowledging or interpreting the religious texts. These major and minor sub-sects gradually sprang up for the most part on account of different interpretations the pontiffs put on the canonical texts from time to time.

The Digambaras are divided into following sub-sects:
(a) Major sub-sects: (i) Bisapanthi (ii) Terapanthi (iii) Taranapanthi or Samaiyapanthi.
(b) Minor sub-sects: (i) Gumanapanthi (ii) Totapanthi.

The Bisapanthis Worship the idols with flowers, fruits and sweetmeats. In their temples they keep the idols of Ksetrapala, Bhairava and other deities along with the idols of Tirthankaras. They perform Arati (waving lights over the idol) and offer sweetmeats (prasada) in the temple even at night. While worshipping they sit and do not stand. They consider Bhattarakas (ascetics below the order of Yatis or monks) as their religious teachers (Dharma-gurus), and heads of the religion (Acaryas.)

Terapanthis worship the idols not with flowers, fruits and other green vegetables (known as Saccitta things), but with sacred rice called Aksata, cloves, sandal, almond, dry cocoanuts, dates. etc. In their temples they do not maintain the idols of Ksetrapala, Bhairava and other deities. They neither perform Arati nor offer sweetmeats in the temple, While worshipping they stand and do not sit. They do not treat Bhattarakas as their religious teachers or heads. The last characteristic of Terapanthis, namely, non-recognition of the Bhattaraka system, is the main and important difference from Bisapanthis. From this it is clear that the Terapanthis appear to be reformers. They oppose to various religious practices, as according to them these are not real Jaina religious, practices. Digambara Terapanthis have no connection with Svetambara Terapanthis. Among the Digambaras, Bisapanthis and Terapanthis are so proud of their practices that they do not visit the temples of other Panthas or sects. Bispanthis are found more in Rajasthan and Gujarat and Terapanthis in Rajasthan, U. P. and M. P. Terapantha arose in 1683 V. S. as a revolt against the loose conduct of Bhattarakas and now it claims practically two-third members of the Digambara sect as its followers. Terepantha had performed a valuable task of rescuing Digambara sect from the clutches of Bhattarakas and hence the Terapanthis occupy a peculiar position in the Digambara Jaina community.

The sub-sect Taranapantha is known after its founder Tarana Svami or Tarana Swami. This sub-sect is also called Samaiyapantha because its followers worship Samaya, the sacred books. The population of Taranapanthis is nearly 40,000 and they are mainly found in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh, former Central Indian States and some parts of Khandesha District. Members from the following six castes, namely Paravara, Asaiti, Golalare, Charanagare, A judhyabasi and Dosakhe Paravara, are the followers of this sub-sect. Taranaswami (1505-1552 v.s.) founded the sub-sect in the latter part of the 16th century of the Vikrama Era. He died at Malharagarh, in Former Gwalior state, and this is the central place of pilgrimage of Taranapanthis. They do not worship the idols but they do worship their own sacred books. Even though at present there are six castes among the Taranapanthis, they were really against the caste distinctions.

Taranaswami was looking with equanimity towards all persons and in fact he threw open the doors of his sub-sect to Muslims and low caste people. Ruiramana, one of the main disciples of Taranasvami, was a Muslim. Further, Taranapanthis gave more importance to spiritual values and the study of sacred literature. That is why we find a complete absence of outward religious practices among them. These three main traits of Taranapanthis, namely hatred of idol-worship, ban on caste distinctions and removal of outward religious practices, were evolved as a revolt against the religious practices and beliefs then prevailing in the Digambara Jaina Church and it appears that Taranasvami might have formulated these principles under the direct influence of Islamic doctrines and teachings of Lonkasaha, the founder of non-idolatrous sub-sect among the Svetambaras.

Gumanapanthis and Totapanthis are not so important and very little is known about them. Gumanapantha flourished of late in the 18th century A. D. and was so called from the name of its founder Gumana Rama.

In the Digambara sect, in recent years, a new sub-sect known as Kanaji Pantha, consisting of the followers of Kanaji Swami, is being formed. Kanaji Svami, a Svetambara Sthanakvasi by birth, has largely succeeded in popularising the old sacred texts of the great Digambara saint Acarya Kunda-kunda of South India. But Kanaji Swami's efforts, while interpreting Acarya Kunda-kunda's writings, to give more prominence to Niscayanaya (realistic viewpoint) in preference to Vyavaharanaya (practical viewpoint) are not approved by the Digambaras in general as they consider that both the view points are of equal importance. However, the influence of Kanaji Swami is steadily increasing and Sonagadha town in Gujarat has become the central place of varied religious activities of Kanajipanthis.

Like Digambaras, the Svetambaras are also split up into following sub-sects:(i) Pujera or Murtipujaka or Deravasi or Mandiramargi.(ii) Dhundhiya or Bistola or Sthanakavasi or Sadhumargi.(iii) Terapanthi

The original stock is now known as Murtipujaka-Svetamabaras as they are the through worshippers of idols. The offer fruits, flowers and saffron, etc. to their idols and adorn them with rich clothes and ornaments. Their ascetics cover their mouth with strips of cloth while speaking, otherwise they keep them in their hands. Again their ascetics have no objection to wearing yellow clothes.

The Sthanakavasis do not believe in idol-worship at all. Their ascetics cover their mouths with strips of cloth for all the time and they do not use the cloth of yellow or any other colour (of course except white). The Sthanakavasis arose not directly from the Svetambaras but as reformers of an older reforming sect, namely Lonka sect. The Lonka sect was founded in about 1474 A. D. by Lonkasaha, a rich and well-read merchant of Ahemdabad, and the main principle of this sect was not to practice idol-worship. Later on, some of the members of the Lonka sect diapproved of the lives of their ascetics, declaring that they lived less strictly than Mahavira would have wished. A Lonka sect layman, Viraji of Surat, received initiation as a Yati and won great admiration on account of the strictness of his life. Many people of the Lonka sect joined this reformer and they took the name of Sthanakavasi (those who do not live in temples but in Apasara) whilst their enemies called them Dhundhiya (searchers). This title has grown to be quite an honourable one. Except on the crucial point of idol-worship, Sthanakavasis do not differ much from other Svetambara Jainas and nowadays they invariably call themselves as Svetambara Sthanakavasis.

It is interesting to note that the two non-idolatrous sub-sects - Taranapanthis among Digambaras and Sthanakavasis among Svetambaras - came very late in the history of the Jaina Church and to some extent it can safely be said that Muhammedan influence on the religious mind of India was greatly responsible for their rise. In this connection S. Stevenson observes : "If one effect of the Muhammedan conquest, however, was to drive many of the Jainas into closer union with their fellow idol worshippers in the face of iconoclasts, another effect was to drive others away from idolatry altogether. No oriental could hear a fellow oriental's passionate outcry against idolatry without doubts as to the righteousness of the practice entering his mind. Naturally enough it is in Ahemdabad, the city of Gujarat that was most under Muhammedan influence, that we can first trace the stirring of these doubts. About 1452 A. D. the Lonka sect, the first of the non-idolatrous Jaina sects, arose and was followed by the Dhundhiya or Sthanakavasi sect about 1653 A. D., dates which coincide strikingly with the Lutherian and Puritan movements in Europe.

The foundation of Terapanthi sub-sect was laid by Swami Bhikkhanaji Maharaja in V. S. 1817. He was formerly a Sthanakavasi and when he perceived some difference in the religious practices of Sthanakavasi ascetics, he began to convert the people to his own views. As he laid stress on the thirteen religious principles, namely five Mahavratas, five Samitis and three Guptis, his sub-sect was known as the Terapanthi sub-sect. About 150 male ascetics, 300 female ascetics and one lakh ordinary laymen are the followers of Terapanthi sub-sect. Terapanthis are non-idolatrous and are vey finely organised by their Acarya (religious head) and every year on the 7th day of bright half of the month of Magha, a festival known as Maryada Mahotsava is celebrated when all ascetics and lay disciples, male and female, meet together and discuss the various problems of Terapanthis. The penance of Terapanthis is considered to be very severe.

The Terapantha is known for its disciplined organisation characterised by one Acarya, one code of conduct and one line of thought. The Terapanthis are considered reformists as they emphasise simplicity in religion. For example, the Terapanthis do not even construct monasteries for their monks, who inhabit a part of the house which the householders build for themselves. Recently their religious head, Acarya Tulsi, has started the Anuvrata movement which attempts to utilise the spiritual doctrines of the Jainas for moral uplift of the masses.

RISE OF SECTIONS AND SUB-SECTIONSApart from the splitting of the Jaina Church into various sects and sub-sects, we find that every main sect was further divided into several sections and sub-sections like Samgha, Gana, Gaccha and Sakha. In the Digambara sect, there a rose a number of Samghas namely, Mula (original) Samgha, and others like Dravida Samgha, Kastha Samgha, Mathura Samgha, etc. The Mula Samgha was further split up into four small Samghas for very trivial reasons.

The Guru Arhadbalin effected the excellent organisation of Samghas : the Simha Samgha, the Namdi Samgha, the famous Sena Samgha and the Deva Samgha were well-known as they were distinguished by the places of their establishment. Thus those who used to keep their rainy season's retreat in the den of a lion formed into a Simha Samgha, those in the lower part of a tree of the Namdi species, Namdi Samgha, those under the bushes, Sena Samgha and those in the house of a courtesan named Devadatta, Deva Samgha. Further, in the Samghas there were small sections like Ganas and Gacchas, the Namdi Samgha had Balatkara Gana and Parijata Gaccha.
Even though there were sections and sub-sections among the Digambaras, really there was no difference in them regarding religious practices and beliefs and it should be remembered that this fact was impressed on lay disciples.

The Ganas, Gacchas and others that have arisen from them, are the grantors of eternal bliss. There is between them no difference whatever in their monastic and other practices. If a man imagines any difference in the four samghas, he has travelled beyond the truth and is gone completely into the world. In them there is no difference of images nor of penitential observances, nor is there any distinction in their rules and readings.

A number of Gacchas came into being in the Svetambara sect also. They originated from the different Jaina teachers, who assumed themselves as heads of their own Gacchas, allenging differences in religious practices and holding different interpretations of the text of the Sutras, (holy scriptures). The literature of Svetambara sect has preserved the list of the Suris of hierarchs, right from Arya Sudharman, Mahavira's successor as head of Jaina Church, noting down the important events during their time. Therein, we find that after Udyotana Suri, his eighty-four disciples started eighty-four Gacchas as all of them were created Acaryas by him. This happened in A. D. 937 at a place named Teli near the famous Mount Abu. The following is a list of the names of the Gacchas commonly found and most of them have become now extinct.

1. Agama
58. Kuchora
2. Ancala
59. Kutubapura
3. Anpuri
60. Lumpaka
4. Bagheravala
61. Madhukara
5. Baherha
62. Mamdaliya
6. Bapana
63. Mandharana
7. Barhgacha
64. Mandovara
8. Barodiya
65. Manghosa
9. Belia
66. Maladhora
10. Bharuyaccha
67. Masena
11. Bhatanera
68. Mathura
12. Bahavaharsa
69. Muhasorarha
13. Bhavendra
70. Muramdavala
14. Bhavaraja
71. Nadola
15. Bhimapalli
72. Nagadraha
16. Bhimasena
73. Nagarakata
17. Bhinmala
74. Nagaravala
18. Bidyadhara
75. Nagendra
19. Bijaya
76. Nagori
20. Birejivala
77. Nagapura
21. Boresimgha
78. Nanavala
22. Bramhana
79. Narhiya
23. Citourha
80. Jithara
24. Citravala
81. Nigama
25. Dasiya
82. Palanapura
26. Dekacharha
83. Pallkiya
27. Dhamdhusa
84. Pallivala
28. Dharmaghosa
85. Pancabahali
29. Dobadanika
86. Parsvacandra
30. Dokarha
87. Pippalaka
31. Gacchapala
88. Purnatalla
32. Ganadhara
89. Purima
33. Gamgesara
90. Ramasena
34. Ghamghodhara
91. Rangavijaya
35. Ghoghera
92. Revati
36. Ghosavala
93. Rudrapalliya
37. Gubela
94. Sagara
38. Guptauba
95. Sancara
39. Hamsaraka
96. Samderaka
40. Jalori
97. Sanjata
41. Jamgorha
98. Sarasvati
42. Javaharaka
99. Saravala
43. Jherantiya
100. Sardhapunamiya
44. Jiravala
101. Sevantara
45. Cchapara
102. Siddhanta
46. Kacchela
103. Siddhapura
47. Kamalakalasa
104. Soratha
48. Kamboja
105. Surana
49. Kandobiya
106. Tanavala
50. Kapurasimgha
107. Tapa
51. Kattakapura
108. Thambhana
52. Kavala
109. Trengaliya
53. Khambhyata
110. Tirbhaviya
54. Kharatara
111. Upakesa
55. Koramtavala
112. Ustavala
56. Kosipura
113. Utabiya
57. Krsnarsi
Like Murtipujaka Svetambaras, The Sthanakavasi Svetambaras also have been sub-divided into 32 Gacchas.

ATTEMPTS OF RECONCILIATION
From the above discussion it will be seen that the Jaina Church which was one and undivided at the time of Mahavira has now been split up into sects, sub-sects, Samghas, Ganas, Gachchhas, etc. Apart from the religious divisions existing at present there might have been other divisions in the past. Such divisions must have flourished in the past but it appears that they could not survive upto the present day for want of followers or some other reasons. As an instance the name of 'Yapaniya or Yapya Samgha' can be cited. This Samgha was established by Sri Kalasa Acarya at Kalyana town in Gulbarga District in Karnataka. Like Svetambaras, it recognised the existence of sacred books and believed that women could attain salvation and saints could take food after attaining omniscience; but at the same time it was, like Digambaras, against using clothes and it followed the rules and regulations of Digambara ascetics. Neither its literature nor any of its followers is existing today. It appears that this Samgha was a connecting link between the Digambaras and Svetambaras or probably it was a solution to iron out the differences between the two sects. But this solution was not, it seems, accepted by the people and as such it has to remain as a separate Samgha and Vanish within a Short period for want of following. Afterwards no attempt worth the name was made in the long history of the Jaina Church to cement the outstanding differences between the sects and among the sub-sects within a sect. On the contrary it is a pity that more importance was attached to small differences of practice and this ultimately gave rise to various Samghas, Gacchas, etc. The main difference between the Mula Samgha and Kastha Samgha of Digambaras lies in the fact that while the ascetics of the former use the bunch of peacock feathers for warding off insects, those of the latter use a switch of cow's tail. There was a third section which did away with the use of a bunch or switch and hence it was called Nihpicchika Samgha. Even though the differences were meagre, the Mula Samgha declared the other two Samghas as Jainabhasa, that is, false Jaina Samghas. Exactly on the same lines various Gacchas like Kharatara, Anchala, Paurnimiyaka, Katuka, etc. arose among the Svetambaras due to little differences and there was practically constant rivalry among them. Books like Kupaksakau sikasahasvakisana, Tapomatakuttana, Ancalamatadalana, indicate this spirit of rivalry. Thus it will be found that there is nothing like unity in the Jaina Church but on the contrary there is a vivid tendency to magnify the differences and to split up the Jaina Church into small sections spread all over India. Moreover there was not during the last 2000 years even a single powerful personality in the Jaina community who could iron out the differences between the two main sects which insist more on their mutual differences. It goes without saying that this unusually large number of religious sections or divisions in a small Jaina community can hardly serve as an incentive for unity in that community.

Jainism, Tirthankaras and the Indian Way

by Dr. Ravindra Kumar

In spite of vital role played by the Vedic-Hindu view of life in the making and developing of the Indian Way, the contribution of others towards its strengthening and welfare cannot be minimized. Also cent percent credit of strengthening the Indian Way from time-to-time cannot be given only to the Vedic-Hindu view of life. Any such attempt will be inappropriate; it will not justifiable. Moreover, such an attempt will penetrate the wide scope of the Indian Way itself. Along with this, it will be an act of indifference from the fundamental spirit of Ahimsa, which is an eternal, greatest and natural value, which calls upon self-realization, and which fills the Indian Way with features like unity and equality.

After Vedic-Hindu view of life the name of Jain philosophy can be mentioned foremostly in context of making the Indian Way firm. The Jain Tirthankaras from time-to-time contributed towards strengthening it. Doesnt matter if the religious community, known as the Jain today, has no faith in Godlike Supreme Power or Jain philosophy does not make God the basis of human-unity and equality, but the approach through which Jain Tirthankaras, in spite of its limited number of followers, parallel to Vedic-Hindu view of life made Ahimsa the only basis of all human-activities that doubtlessly gave strength to Indias Way in which universal acceptance is nucleus. Doesnt matter if Jain philosophy connected Ahimsa to tough self-restraint and self-control which would not be possible for commonmen to follow, but the role played by Tirthankaras and Saints of this religious-community in spreading and propagating this eternal, natural and greatest human value is an indivisible and permanent part of open chapters of the Indian Way.

The tradition of Jain philosophy and Tirthankaras is very old I am particularly of the view that Jain Philosophy is Sanatana. Proofs of existence of Tirthankara Rishabhdev have been found in digging work of sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. Not only was this, as per the mention in the Jain treatises, Rishabhdev, the first Tirthankara, was the son of Nabhi and Marudevi, the king and queen of Ayodhya. In the Rig-Veda itself he has been mentioned as one of the Avataras-incarnations. In treatises of Hindus and Jains both it has also been mentioned that Rishabhdev was from the Ikshavaku family line. Particularly Jain treatises describe that Hindustan [India] was known as Bharatha due to Bharat, the eldest son of Rishabhdev and who was a great king. Undoubtedly, the Jain tradition is quite old. Like Hinduism history of Jainism is ancient. Thus, from ancient times, and particularly from the time of Tirthankara Rishabhdev, Jainism has contributed greatly towards strengthening and developing the Indian Way.

Contribution of the First Tirthankara
The contribution of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabhdev in strengthening the Indian Way can be apparent on four aspects. And the first among them is that being a great and wise cultivator he trained Indians in systematic agricultural work. He called upon people to domesticate animals on larger scale along with agriculture; he inspired Indians for it. Both these practices could grant dimensions to Ahimsa and thus strengthened the Indian Way.

Bringing the society in the range of simplicity was Rishabhdevs second major contribution. He made great efforts of bringing commonmen out of the domain of hard rules. He inspired people to lead life on the basis of simple and adaptable laws. In spite of connecting Ahimsa with self-retrain and self-control, he called upon people to make love and friendliness the basis of their social conducts, which confirmed his commitment towards simplicity and adaptable rules for commonmen. In this regards it has been mentioned in the Trilokakshara:

Dhammo Vadiyamoolo Vanimmiyio Adybihamen

Meaning thereby, Rishabh, the first Tirthankara, laid the foundation of the simple dharma. That dharma was based upon love and friendliness.

The third and ever memorable contribution of Rishabhdev towards the Indian Way had been in his work and teachings of developing the art of cottage industries and that too according to demand of time and space. In this connection too he trained the people. It has been mentioned in the Vrihat Swayambhu Istrota:

Prajapatriyah Prathamam Jajivishiyuh Shashasa Krishyadasiyu Karamasu Prajah

His fourth contribution had been in his exemplary teachings of realistic honesty particularly for those who were involved in business for their livelihood.

All the above four contributions of Rishabhdev, in spite of being extraordinary in his on time, are worth giving a thought until today. Tirthankara Rishabhdev is ideal for those who think about the Indian Way, who are concerned of making this way firm and broad in prevailing conditions of India and the whole world. Doubtlessly, in this regard, Rishabhdev goes beyond the limits set by any particular religious-community.

Chain of Tirthankaras
After Rishabhdev, the first Tirthankara, his great tradition was spread and propagated among the masses by other twenty-one Tirthankaras in prevailing circumstances of their respective times. Among those eighteen Tirthankaras-Ajitnath, Sambhavnath, Abhinandannath, Sumatinath, Padamprabhu [or Padamprabh], Suparshvanath, Chandraprabhu [or Chandraprabh], Pushpadant, Shitalnath, Shreyansnath, Vasupujya, Vimalnath, Anantnath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthunath and Arhanath came from the Ikshavaku family line. They made the people realize the importance of Ahimsa and tried their level best to bring day-to-day activities of all general and particular within its domain. They were great initiator of Ahimsa in their respective eras.

Mallinath, the child of Queen Prabhavati and Ikshavaku Vanshiya King Kumbha of Ayodhya, who according to the Digambar sect of Jain-community was masculine in gender and according to the Shwetambar sect a feminine, rose to the stature of the Nineteenth Jain Tirthankara. Like earlier Tirthankaras Mallinath too accomplished the great task of spreading Ahimsa and conveyed the reality of this supreme value for the welfare of all.

Suvratnath and Naninath were twentieth and twenty-first Jain Tirthankaras and both of them also came from the Ikshavaku family line, while Neminath, the twenty-second Tirthankara, came from the Hari Vansha. They successfully went forward in giving dimensions one after the other to Jain philosophy in their respective eras. They became source of inspiration for many to come to the fold of Jainism and make Ahimsa the basis of their chores.

Tirthankara Parshvanath
Parshvanath [872-772 B. C.], the son of King Ashvasen and Queen Vama of Varanasi, who rose to the stature of the Twenty-Third Jain Tirthankara, became most popular in the chain of Tirthankaras after Rishabhdev. He was the predecessor of Vardhamana Mahavira, the last and the Twenty-Forth Tirthankara. The most valuable contribution of Parshvanath to the Indian philosophy and spiritualism was the foundation of the Chaturyama, a fourfold Shramanika system by him. And the solidarity which Parshvanath gave through this contribution to the Indian Way was not the less than any of the Vedic Rishis.

When during the Upanishadic era under the Vedic system Ahimsa was being purified as the supreme human value, and altogether it was being mentioned particularly in the Shandiloyopnishad and Chandogyopnishad, at that very time Parshvanath, with the purpose of making it foremost in theory and practice both, and to accord it the supreme place in prevailing circumstances, made it first in the Chaturyama. Through this he ratified Indias commitment to human equality and unity. Thus, he himself proved to be the best representative of the Indian Way of his time.

Chaturyama is made of those four principles on the basis of which Parshvanath established the Shramanika System. Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya and Aparigraha are included in it. Doubtlessly, by following this system, particularly its principles of true conduct, non-stealing and Aparigraha, the level of ethics and morality increases to a large extent. Both-ethics and morality-are necessary for the development of Ahimsa. They are the means of realizing it. Therefore, through his Chaturyama system, which is made of Satya, Asteya and Aparigraha along with Ahimsa, Tirthankara Parshvanath gave an extension to the Indian Way; he made it concrete.

Vardhamana Mahavira
Vardhamana Mahavira, who rose to the stature of the Twenty-Fourth Jain Tirthankara, was the son of Kashyapgotriya King Siddhartha and Queen Trishla of Kundagram near Vaishali in present Bihar. It was Mahavira who not only had brought forward the Jain tradition established by Rishabhdev but gave to it the best, unprecedented, unique and historical dimension in theory and practice, which could be known and understood by his own lifelong practices. In his own life Mahavira was on the peak of Ahimsa. I am of the view that he was unique in fostering Ahimsa. Until today he holds unique position in this regard. I am not acquainted of any such other who experienced and practiced Ahimsa to the extent as Mahavira did. Also I am not sure whether someone else will become equal to him in this context. Indians can take pride of having such a unique and matchless initiator of Ahimsa like Mahavira who born on their motherland.
Mahavira added Brahmacharya [Celibacy] to the Chaturyama system established by the Twenty-Third Tirthankara Parshvanath. Thus, he based it on five principles-Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya and Aparigraha. The purpose behind adding this new principle in the Chaturyama system was to make human conduct morally sound. In fact, celibacy is one of the best means of self-control and self-restrain. It contributes towards maintaining mental and physical balance. Furthermore, it plays vital role in developing constructive approach in man. Therefore, it promotes activities related to Ahimsa.

Being a great guide, elucidator and defender, Mahavira took the Indian Way to heights. The Ratna-traya system established by him is one of the living examples of it. Through the Ratna-traya System-Samyak Darshan, Samyak Jnana and Samyak Charitra-he inspired the people to go forward to attain the highest stage of humanity.

Being a great initiator of Ahimsa and elucidator of the Indian Way, Mahavira tried to make all, general or particular, realize that unity in diversity was a reality. He declared Ahimsa to be the soul force, and through its constant development he emphasized upon realizing harmony, which prevailed not only among human beings, but also between a dangerous and a weak or feeble animal. He talked of drinking water by a lion and a buffalo on the same landing-place.
In the scope of Mahaviras harmony and human-unity all general and particular, woman and man, rich and poor were, and are, equal. All were, and are, eligible of equal progress. All can attain the highest-Moksha. In the entire history of Jain tradition, Mahavira set record of inspiring lacs of men and women to follow Jainism by making Ahimsa nucleus in their day-to-day practices. He wished all to break their bonds and to reach the level of a Tirthankara. In this regard he surpassed all his predecessors.

To understand the reality of the [exiting or materialistic] world, Mahavira proposed a great philosophy of Anekantvad [non-absolutism]. He also presented another philosophy of Syadvad, which was based upon seven possibilities, before the world. These philosophies gave strength to the Indian philosophy on the one hand and on the other they fostered Indias way of life. Moreover, by repeating the principle of possibility of harmony among all creatures he made the aspect of universal acceptance of the Indian Way strong in theory, and by his own pure and true activities in practice.
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Dr. Ravindra is a renowned Indologist; he is a former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Meerut in India.