Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2)

Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2): identification of Perur

M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D
Continues from part 1

The question that has to be decided here is the identification ofPerur mentioned in Ganga records. Taken in conjusction with thehistory of the Rattas, the Kongadesarajakkal furnishes proof that itwas on their fall that the Gangas rose to power and began ruling fromSkandapura in Kongudesa (which is the ancient name for the territorycomprising the modern disteicts of Coimbatore and Salem). TheChronicle would even inform us that the last Ratta ruler changed hisreligion from Jainism to Saivism and that was the cause of hisdownfall. Further, all the early activities of Konganivarman-as thefirst historical ruler of the Ganga house becomes known in all therecords of this dynasty-are confined to this Kongudesa.(Kongadesarajakkal (Or Mss. Edn.) pp. 2-3). It is true that we lackdefinite epigraphic evidence in support of this, which we have mainlyonly from the Tamil chronicle above referred to. But it must beremembered that in the first place we have only a few records for theGanga period here referred to; and even the few references that wehave to the early grants of the Gangas seem to refer only to placesin Coimbatore district. Such are places like "Kudluru" to the west ofthe Tatla and east of "Marukarevisaya", in which the names of Kudluruand Marukarevisaya are easily identifiable with the present Gudalurand Madukari in this area. (Kudaluru grant of Madhavavarman; MAR.,1930).

The conclusion naturally follows that Per here referred to as thespot on which Madhava was initiated into Jainism and conferred akingdom on condition that he upheld it through all its confines mustbe the Perur within 3 miles from Coimbatore. We have numerousevidences to show that at the time referred to and for longafterwards this Perur was indeed an important place. The placereferred to by this name cannot be the Perur in Cuddapah district, asRice surmises, where no Jain remains are to be found. The tratditionis that Dadiga and Madhava were sent to the south of Mysore, asalready indicated. Further, the very title assumed by the first ruleras Madhava Konganivarman seems to give an unmistakable proof of thisconclusion, since as the Kongadesarajakkal aptly remarks:

"As wealth, the Kongu country and great
munificence were possessed by him he was
styled srimalt Konganivarman Dharmamahadiraja."(Kongadesarajakkal(Taylor's trans.); MJLS., XIV)

While the mention of Simhanandi as a "person of the southern country'in the inscription at Parsvanatha Basti at Sravana Belgola alreadyreferred to, seems to set the seal upon this conclusion.

to cont.

Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District

M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D.

COIMBATORE, the headquarter of the district which goes by its namein the State of Madras, is well-known to-day as the "Manchester ofSouth India." There is perhaps not another place in the whole of thisregion to equal it not only in the numerous spinning and weavingmills it possesses but also in the general standard of wealth, healthcivilisation and culture. But few are interested in studying thehistory of this district and particularly the development of culturein this area. Of the era preceding the period of British occupationof the district, which began in 1799, particularly little or nothingis known.

In this paper I propose to make an enquiry into a subject which formspart of a larger whole, viz., the cultural development of theCoimbatore region in early times and the particular subject forenquiry here is an estimate of the Jain contribution to this quota.So many vestiges of Jainism are to be found in this district thatthere is no doubt about the great influence this religion must haveexerted over the people of this region in early times. That it musthave been much more than any one would suspect is certain. Names ofplaces like seenapuram clearly remaind one of the early jain influentover the region; while old jain shrines found in places like.Vijayamangalam, Tirumurthimalai and Karur bear an equally strongevidence to the same. A figure of the Jain Thrithankara is found inTirumurthimalai; and a number of Jain beds are found to this day inArunattarmalai in Karur Taluk while in Arasannamalai nearVijayamangalam the Neminatha temple has been now converted into aVinayaka temple. Not only this. The district of Coimbatore in earlytimes seems to have been the home of several Jain scholars, not theleast of whom was the great Bavanandi, the author of the celebratedTamil grammar, Nannul, who seems to have lived in the region ofVijayamangalam in Erode Taluk.

It is impossible for us to explain these vestiges unless we postulatea period of Jain glory in the district at some time during itssojourn in South India. The Kongadesarajakkal, a XVII century TamilMss., which has been recently edited by Mr. C. M. RamachandranChettiar, Advocate, Coimbatore, (Madras Govt, Oriental Series, VI,1950) brings to light a set of seven rulers called Rattas(Rashtrakutas?) in this region during the period between 250 A.D. and400 A.D. Many if not all of them are represented in this work asprofessors and strong supporters of Jainism.(Ibid., pp. 1-2). In thereign of the fourth ruler, Govindaraya, a grant to the jainArishtanna is mentioned and in that of the sixth ruler, Kannaradeva,the names of three great Jain theologians, of whom one Naganandi ismentioned by name, are referred to. (Ibid)

The history of the origin of the Ganga dynasty of Mysore indicateseven more clearly how deep-rooted was janism in the district ofCoimbatore in early times. It would appear that in the closing yearsof the IV century A.D., King Padmanabha of the Gangas had to send histwo sons, Dadiga and Madhava to the south by way of preparing himselfto meet his enemy, King Mahipala of Ujjain.(Rice; Mysore and Coorg;p. 31). The rest of the narration as found in Rice's words is asfollows:

"When they arrived at Perur, which is still distinguished from otherPerurs as Ganga-Perur (in Cuddapah district), they met there the JainAchariya Simhanandi. He was interested in the story of these Gangaprinces and taking them by the hand, gave them instruction andtraining and eventually procured for them a kingdom."(Rice: Op.,cit., loc., cit).

Many Ganga records like the Udayendiram plates of Prithvipati II, theKudlur grant of Marasimha and the Santara inscription on the Hunchastone* bear clear evidence to the fact that Simhanandi gave them akingdom and that he was a reputed Jain teacher. The last mentionedrecord indeed refers to him as "the archariya who made the Gangakingdom.":
"Ganga-rajyaman madida Simhanandy acharyya."(EC., VIII, Nr. 35)

Indrabhuti in his Samayabhushana names him as a great poet to be kepton par with Elacharya and Pujyapada.(IA., XII, 20). Still, no betterdescription can be given of Simhanandi than what is found in theJaina record near the Siddhesvara temple at Kallurgudda in ShimogaTaluk:
"The Vijaya or victory to the farthest shore of learning, the fullmoon to the ocean of the Jaina congregation, possessed of patienceand all the ten excellent qualities, his good life, a secure wealth,rejoicing in the modest, his fame extending to the four oceans,keeping at a distance from the evil, a sun in the sky of theKranurgana, devoted to the performance of the twelve kinds ofpenance, promoter of the Ganga kingdom-Sri Simhanandiacharyya."(EC.,VII, Sh. 4)
On the other hand we owe to the evidence of inscriptional recordslike those of the Parsvanathi Basti at Sravana Belgola and others tobe seen at Kallurgudda and Purale in Shimoga Taluk that Madhavadefinitely came under the influence of Simhanandi, who intiated himinto jain doctrines and conferred on him a kingdom on condition thathe always took care to uphold that Faith throughout its confines.(Ibid, also 64). The latter tow give a detailed account of thisorigin of the Ganga Kingdom, which deserves to be quoted at least inpart, as it gives one an idea of the depth of Jain influence thatruled over the region where the Ganga kingdom was founded:

"On Madhava impressing him with his extraordinary energy...Simhanandi made a coronet of the petals of the Karnikara flowersbound it on Madhava's head, gave them (the two brothers) the dominionof all the earth, presented them with a flag made from his peacockfan and furnished them with attendants, elephants and horses. Alongwith these he gave them also the following advice: 'If you fail inwhat you have promised, if you do not approve the Jina sasana; if youseize the wives of others; if you indulge in wine and flesh; if youform relationship with the low; if you give not your wealth to theneedy; if you flee from the field or battle-your race will go to ruin.

to cont.

Jain Art and Architecture

By Dr. N. L. Jain

The Jainas could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest times. It has a religious orientation in its art in varied forms. Being predominatly idolators, they have good iconography and icon making art. They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood, stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could carve icons out of stones also. All icons have been made according to dimensions with attractive meditating faces of victors expressing the idea of successful withdrawl from worldly life. There are many idols of international accreditation-one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh state need special mention for their magnificience and heights. The icons are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days with high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the last quarter of this century.

Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum, one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir), hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks. The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art. They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.

The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious field.

Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still continuing gracefully.

Wall paintings are also found in many temples and caves representing religious stories, tenets and prominent incidents of Victors lives, mother's dreams, legendary scenes, miniature painting and palm leaf or paper decoration (manuscripts) which has also been an art of respect. The exquisite samples of this art are found in many Jain manuscrpit libraries. Wood carving has also been an art. It seems some of these arts have been declining considerably.

The art and architecture of the Jainas have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. They also glorify the devotees too internally with psychological bliss. Jainas realised that true art represents the spirit of true religion. Besides its religious value, it has been taken as a treasure of the country. That is why many Jain art centers have become tourist attractions now.

Development of Jainism in Bihar

Ancient Period of History of Jainism

Mrs. N. R. Guseva



The community which was founded by the 23rd Tirthankar, Parshva (or Parshvanath) was called 'Nirgrantha' (or Niggantha), which means 'free from fetters' (from attachments). Both men and women could be members of the community.

Parshva preached four truisms, adherence to which can, according to his teachings, secure cognition. Those are: not to kill, not to steal, no attachment to earthly things, and complete truthfulness. For securing salvation, he prescribed strict asceticism.

All the members of the community were divided in 'laymen' (Shravaka-men and Shravika-women) and 'Ascetics' (yati, muni or sadhu-males and arjika or sadhvi-females). These four groups had their leaders, who observed the conduct of their members and this means that the community had a clear-cut organisation. Thus admittedly, Jainism as a system of religious and ethical views and likewise as a community of Jains was formed long before Mahavir Jeena became the head of the community.

According to Jain legends, Mahavir was born in the beginning of the sixth century B.C. on the territory of Bihar. As regards Mahavir's father, it is said that he belonged to a kinship which was equal among the equal ruling Kshatriya kinships', in Kumdagamma, near to Vaishali (capital of the vaishali republic). Mahavir's mother belonged to the Lichhavi tribe.

Mahavir added one more precept to the four precepts of his predecessor Parshva. This precept was expectation of complete chastity. In the course of 12 years he performed ascetic feats, living without clothes and almost without food. At the age of 42 he secured 'enlightenment' and until his death was the spiritual head of the community.

He was very active in propagating Jainism and noticeably extended the borders of the community. During his life and after his death, this religion was widely known in the territory of modern Varanasi (Kashi or Banaras), Bihar and West Bengal. The rulers of many eastern Gangetic states supported Jainism and encouraged the spread of Jainism.

The Jain monks were not tied to monasteries, as the Buddhist monks. Nude ascetics lived in forests, in mountains and in caves (the monks lived compulsorily separate from the nuns); but usually near towns and settlements, so that the laymen-Jains paid respect to their ascetic feats and learnt from them.

Strict conjugal loyalty, observance of the five basic precepts (they were required to live one day in a month, as monks), restrictions regarding worldly enjoyments, and support to the community-those were the claims made on the laymen.

One of the reasons why Jainism is more steadfast to life in comparison to Buddhism is the close contact of monks with laymen.

Mahavir had 11 pupils, but only two of them-Sudharman and Indrabhuti-survived their teacher. Sudharman continued to preach the faith. From him the canon was adopted by his pupil, Jambuswami, who is considered the last of the teachers of Jainism. He secured the state of enlightenment and became 'keval'. From Jambuswami canon was transferred (it was transformed by word of mouth) in turn to the four heads of the Jain temples. The last amongst them, Bhadrabahu, started for south of India during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya and it seems reached Ceyclon (Lanka). In the Buddhist 'Mahavamsha', it is said that when the son and daughter of Ashok Maurya went to Ceylon to preach Buddhism, they saw Jain ascetics there.
Soon after Mahavir's death, a split started in the community. With the spread of the religion in new regions, its preachers started to incorporate their own in the unwritten Jain canon, and serious differences arose amongst them. Out of several sects, which arose, two sects played great role in the whole of the history of Jainism and continue to do so even at present. These sects are Digambara and Shvetambara.

The Digambara sect is closer to initial Jainism. First of all, it stands for the ritualistic nudity (the very word 'digambara' means 'clothed in space' or 'clothed in cardinal points') and demands that the images of Tirthankars should not be even adorned. The Shvetambaras i.e. 'clothed in white' protest against full nudity and do not insist on the images of Tirthankars without ornaments.
The Digambaras are more orthodox also in regard to austerity of the ascetics. They consider that a human being, having reached the 'path of salvation', the condition of enlightenment' or 'keval-jnana' does no longer need food and drink and must completely forget all about his body. The Shvetambaras do not agree with this.

In the third century B.C. in Pataliputra an all-Jain synod was held and the first version of the written canon was prepared.

The Digambaras do not accept this canon, affirming that the real ancient canon, created according to the legend by Rishabha is lost. The Shvetambaras adhere to the canon which was accepted in Pataliputra and consider it the right one.

Digambaras do not agree that Mahavir was married and elevate chastity to the level of a dogma of his whole life. Shvetambaras consider that he was married but assume that he became a real ascetic only after he left his family at the age of 30.

As distinct from Shvetambaras, Digambaras consider that a woman cannot secure full freedom on way to salvation (as regards this notion, the Shvetambaras are nearer to the teaching of Mahavir than Digambar).

Amongst both the Digambaras and the Shvetambaras, there are castes but the former do not observe caste-restrictions. When marriages are effected, they regard their set as one common sect. Shvetambaras adopt rather more caste prohibitions and observe caste endogamy.
The friendship of Mahavir with Makhali Gosala, the head of anti-brahmin sect of Ajivikas, who came from slave origin, speaks of the great liberalism of ancient Jainism and possibly of active counteraction to it.

Mahavir travelled with him for six years, preaching truth about the futility of reliance on the posthumous life of the soul, about uselessness of sacrificial offerings and about the necessity for the ascetic to expose his body. This preaching was similar to the teaching of Ajivikas.
Many a scholar considered that Mahavir and Buddha were one and the same person and Buddhism and Jainism were two branches of the same teaching, out of which Buddhism originated earlier.

Herman Jacobi, a profound scholar of Jain and Buddhist literature thoroughly compared all legends connected with Mahavir and Buddha and also the basic tenets of their teachings and showed that they preached independently of each other (although in the historically close period).

According to Jacobi, similarity in names of the parents of Mahavir and Buddha testifies to the fact that such names were very much widespread amongst Kshatriyas.

The facts of lives of both, as described in the works of ancient Indian literature are completely different. Thus, Jacobi writes that Buddha and Mahavir were born in different geographical spots (let us add: and also at different periods). Buddha's mother died soon after his birth. Mahavir's parents lived for 30 years after his birth. Buddha became an ascetic against the will of his father and when he was alive, mahavir became an ascetic after his father's death and with the consent of Kshatriyas. Buddha was a devotee for six years, Mahavir, twelve years. Buddha did not appreciate the ascetic feats (neither his own nor of others). Mahavir considered that these were necessary (to this day the Jain ascetics spend 12 years as devotees for 'securing perfection'). In the early Buddhism, worship of statues and other portrayals of preachers of religion was censured. In Jainism, such worship was always taken for granted. The names of Buddha's pupils do not coincide with those of Mahavir. The two died at different times and at different places.

Moreover, the word 'Tirthankar' (boatman across the ocean of existence), used by the Jains as the most venerable epithet for their ancient preachers of religion, signifies in Buddhism founders of heretics. The fact that amongst both Buddhists and Jains such epithets as buddha, sarvajnya (all-knowing), mukta (liberated), jeena (conqueror) etc. were prevalent, only shows that these attributes, applied to religious preachers, were widespread. Besides, Jacobi observes that Buddhists used one group of such attributes, while Jains preferred other ones.

Many scholars (Colebrooke, Radhakrishnan, etc.) attempt to show that Jainism existed before Buddhism. Colebrooke justifies his viewpoint by saying that the teaching of Jains about the existence of soul in each living being is traced back to primitive animism.

Jacobi considers that although the Buddhist and Jain Communities arose and developed independently of each other, they borrowed much from Brahmin ascetics, not only from philosophy and moral prescriptions, but also from the custom of using the same obligatory things. It is true, he makes a reservation there viz., that the author of the Sanskrit treatise Baudhayana' in which all the prescriptions to the ascetics are collected, lived after Buddha (and this also means after Mahavir).

In order to express her disagreement with the viewpoint that the Brahmanic ascetics served as an example for the creation of Jain monastic community, and to express her own reflections in this context, the writer of the present book had already cited all the proofs which were accessible to her.

Many rulers of ancient Bihar rendered patronage to the Jain community, which possibly testifies to the long acquaintance of its population with Jainism. Chetaka, the most famous ruler of Lichhavi gave his sister Trisala to Jain Siddhartha in marriage, and from this marriage Mahavir was born. Representatives of the dynasty of Shaishunaga (sixth century B.C.)- Bimbisara and Ajatshatru-were, according to legend, related to Mahavir and professed Jainism. The members of the Nanda dynasty (fifth-sixth centuries B.C.) were Jains. According to Jain legends Chandragupta Maurya was also a Jain and lived as an ascetic for 12 years and died in Shravanbelgol in Mysore. Some others consider that Ashoka Maurya also professed Jainism in youth and introduced this religion in Kashmir (confirmation of this is found in the Kashmirian chronicle 'Rajatarangini'). Samprati, grandson of Ashoka greatly contributed to the spread of Jainism.

Kharavela the illustrious ruler of the Kalinga state (whose people knew Jainism from the time of Parshva, i.e. from the eighth century B.C.), living in the second century B.C. was one of the warmest patrons of Jainism. In Kalinga, Jainism was known as far back as the eighth century B.C. and evidently, it penetrated in southern India through Kalinga.

This religion had spread also in Bengal before the seventh century A.D. Suan Tsyan writes that there were many nude ascetics, called 'nirgrantha' (even at present in several places in Bengal statues of Tirthankaras are worshipped but they are called not Jeena but Bhairav i.e. Shiva).
Thus we see that this religious faith had spread widely in the first millennium B.C. precisely in the eastern regions of India, populated mainly by non-Aryan peoples. But the establishment of Aryan domination, the spread of the institution of varna and caste-structure and also the institution of Brahmanism, led to the departure of Jains and their religious teachers from Bihar. The teaching of Digambaras spread in South India and of Shvetambaras mainly in North India and gradually became more known in its western regions.

Suan Tsyan observes that in the seventh century A.D., Jainism was strong only in the homeland of Mahavir, i.e. in Vaishali but in the succeeding centuries Brahmanism forced it out from there also and this religion was practically forgotten in the eastern regions of India.

Development of Jainism outside Bihar

Mrs. N. R. Guseva

In ethnography it is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the third century B.C. i.e. since the time when Bhadrabahu a preacher of this religion and the head of monks' community came to Karnatak from Bihar.

But there also exists another viewpoint, viz. that Jainism was known here long before the arrival of Bhadrabahu and that he only infused new life in this old religion. The adherents of God Shiva knew and accepted from Jainism much. which was already known to them from religious teachings-ascetism, the yoga-asana posture, protection to animals. etc.

In the course of the first century A.D., Jainism spread along south India quite intensively and smoothly. It was widely known in the empire of Satavahanas (whose fall is dated in the third century A.D.) and availed the patronage of rulers of Ganga dynasties (second to eleventh centuries), early Kadamba (fourth to sixth centuries), Chalukya (sixth to eighth centuries), Pallava (fifth to ninth centuries) and other dynasties. Many rulers built Jain temples and monasteries and set up kitchens for feeding monks.

The modified Brahmanism, as applied to local conditions became during this period a widely known religious system. Departing from the worship of a majority of Vedic gods, and forbidding to a significant degree sacrifices of animal, Hinduism in the main adopted in this epoch the form of Bhagvatism (from Bhagvat-deity) i.e. the upper deities were set apart from the innumerable gods of Hinduism, as though they were the heads of the pantheon. Gods Shiva and Vishnu, became the chief objects of worship of Bhagvats in south India. And thus two main currents-Shivaism and Vishnuism-took shape in Hinduism.

This was the early epoch of bhakti, the religious movement in Hinduism, calling for unlimited, self-renouncing love towards the deity Shiva or Vishnu.

Bhakti-Shivayats (i.e. the fanatic adherents of Shivaism) known by the name of Nayanars and Bhakti-Vishnuits (Alvars) composed hymns in praise of these gods. These hymns serve for the historians as a great and extremely interesting section of literature of the early Middle Ages in south India.

From these sources it can be seen that enmical relations sprung up between the Jain community and Bhakti-Hinduists in the south towards the middle of the first millennium A.D.

The Jain religion-preachers founded a monastery in the district of South Arcot (modern stated of Madras), and named it Pataliputra-evidently in memory of one of the northern strongholds of this religion. The monks in Pataliputra converted a wide strata of local population into Jainism, including several strong rulers of south Indian states, as for example, Mahendravarman of the Pallava dynasty (beginning of the seventh century A.D.).

This monastery was not the only influential centre of Jainism in the south. The Jain monasteries in Puhar, Urapur, Madurai and in a number of other places in south India acquired fame in the first half of the first millennium A.D.

It is evident that rivalry due to influence of the Jains on the rulers and also due to economic benefits (struggle for land, donated to monasteries and temples for rich contributions etc.) served as one of the reasons for the enmity between the communities.

The fight between the Jains and the Bhakts sometimes led not only to public disputes (in those disputes, the defeated were to adopt the faith of the winner) or to contests in demonstrating 'miracles' but also to mass executions of Jains, instigated by the Brahmin advisers who had influence on the rulers.

There is evidence that in Maharashtra, the Jains were subjected to fierce attacks from groups of local population, led by persons known by the name of Bhairavs. This name shows that those groups of population were evidently 'Shaivas' since the word 'Bhairav' is one of the names of Shiva.

In the temple of goddess Minakshee in the town of Madurai (state of Madras) there are frescoes on which mass execution of Jains are carved. Here, even at present, on the day of annual festival of this goddess, a picture of a Jain, impaled, is carried in procession.

The chief reason for such enmity was those social-economic changes, which made their appearance with the development of feudal relations. There are no indications of such intense enmity between the communities until the beginning of the Gupta epoch. New social strata (and first of all, feudal rulers) rising in Gupta epoch, and after that epoch i.e. in the period of growth of feudalism, made reformatory Brahmanism-Hinduism, its own ideological banner. This was Hinduism in the form of the early bhakti. It meant adherence only to supreme god. And then started active attacks on the bearers of the old forms of ideology which was attended by those social-economic relations, destined to disappear from historical arena, since they were closely tied with the epoch of formation of class relations.

The victim of this fight was Buddhism, which could not adopt itself to new social-economic conditions and was practically forced out from India towards the eighth-ninth centuries A.D. Jainism, as a religious faith, distinguished itself by its great simplicity and closeness to practical life of the people. It also probably possessed in a greater measure, roots stretching into the thickness of the faiths of ancient peoples and therefore could withstand this conflict.
It is certain that Jain preachers (Acharyas) ordained the members of the community to adhere to the customs of every people, amongst whom they lived (if only these customs did not happen to contradict the basic principles of Jainism). Thus two types of religious-ritual practice came into being in case of every Jain. Those types were 'Laukika' (worldly), practical and 'Paralaukika' (only for the soul). Not only pilgrimage, but also productive activity formed part of the Laukika.

It is difficult to say whether there was common profession for all the members of the ancient Jain community. All the tasks connected with the destruction of living beings or with causing harm to them were considered as prohibited. That is why Jains reject for example, agriculture, assuming that while ploughing fields, one caused harm to various living beings. But precisely in which period Jains rejected agriculture is not known. Evidently this religious teaching, mainly spread in the environments of cities even in ancient times.

In Karnataka, there existed only one caste called 'Chaturtha' amongst the Jains. This caste is engaged in agriculture. This might call forth the suggestion that members of some strong agricultural caste of a given locality sometime adopted Jainism and continued to engage themselves with agriculture because it was difficult for numerically big groups of people to change the profession in a short time and to settle in the towns for the occupation of trade or usury.

Proceeding from the fact that the activity of trading and usury is the traditional occupation of the Jains in the course of many centuries, it is possible to assume that Jains concentrated on this occupation all their efforts in the period of the blossoming of feudalism. If the Jain-monks lived in the monasteries and cloisters outside the cities, then the Jain-laymen were mainly concentrated in cities. Evidently, the high degree of their influence on many rulers can be explained precisely by the fact that they granted big loans and financed one or another enterprise.

The epoch of early feudalism, development of handicrafts and trade must have objectively facilitated the consolidation of Jainism and helped it to withstand the blows from the side of Hinduism.

Already in the Gupta epoch, many cities (Mathura, Vallabhi, Pundravardhana, Udayagiri, Mysore, Kanchi and others, in which handicrafts and trade flourished) were well known as big centres of Jainism. In the year 453 A.D., an all-Jain synod was convened in the city of Vallabhi for amending and fixing canonical texts. This testifies to the fact that this religion had consolidated itself in the early Middle Ages and it had spread in south and west India. During this period, many commentaries on these texts were written, forming a great section of Jain literature.

However, development of feudalism (and in the sphere of ideology the process of formation of Hinduism) was inseparable from the development and consolidation of caste structure. The Jain community adopted this feature of social-economical and ideological life of India and gradually castes, adopting many restrictions and prohibitions, which existed in Hindu castes took shape in Jainism also.

The ability of the Jain community to adopt to changing historical conditions can be explained by the well known liberalism of Jain canon and the entire structure of the community. Jain preachers did not oppose changes, which time introduced in the organization of the community. As also in antiquity, the community did not shut its door to anybody.

The significant reason for the formation of Jain castes in this period was the mass conversion of Hindus to Jainism in those states, the rulers of which, gave patronage to the Jain community or themselves became Jains. These newly converted preserved within the framework of the new religion their previous tenor of life, based on caste-structure.

The division of the community into castes, finally taking place mainly in the thirteenth-fifteenth centuries added to the division into four varnas, which had already orginated in the ancient (in Bihar) period of development of Jainism. Jain castes proper arose in the main according to the local indications-according to the place of settlement of one or another group of Jains. This is corroborated by the fact that the place of formation of many Jain castes is definitively known. This place is the cities in an overwhelming majority of cases.

In north and west India, merging of Hindu and Jain communities was especially active. Here in the edifice of many Jain castes, there are groups, professing Vishnuism, and in the edifice of many Hindu castes, there are components which are registered as jains. In the south, its own castes were formed in the Jain community, and those castes as a whole, fell apart from the Hindu community

Here the names of Jain castes are not met with in the edifice of Hindu castes. Possibly this shows that the process of formation of Jain community in the south took place on the basis of greater isolation from Hindu community, in which, as is known, the early Bhakti sect attained high development. In this, the struggle between communities, which is referred to above is also reflected. The struggle did not cease even in the first half of the second millennium A.D. It is known that Jains complained to the ruler of Vijaynagar, Bukkarai about oppression from the side of Vishnuits and he commanded in 1368 both the communities to end enmity and to profess their own faiths peacefully.

Southern Jains do not have recourse to the services of the Brahmins, as Jains from the north and west do, and have their own Upaddhyayas (priests) serving within their own community.
In the ninth-fifteenth centuries the south Indian Jain-Digambaras were called 'Panchamas' (the fifth) i.e. those who are placed outside the framework of the four varnas of Jainism. It is true there is another interpretation of this name and that is that in the fifth group amongst Jains, there are only those members of the community who acknowledge marriages of widows because of which other groups of Jains regard the pancham as the 'lowest' group. In order to free themselves from their low position, many panchams merged into Shaivaite sect of Lingayats, who did not acknowledge the caste restrictions.

It is considered that much of the ethical teaching and philosophy of Lingayats is borrowed from the Jains. The majority of Lingayats, as also the Jains, are traders and usurers, which fact serves as direct confirmation of extensive conversion of Jains into Lingayats. In the course of several centuries the Jains and the Lingayats lived together peacefully but in the sixteenth century, during the rule of Raya dynasty in Vijaynagar, conflicts took place between them. Thus Krishnadeo Raya ordered severe punishment to the head of the Lingayat community, becuase he killed several priests of the Jain sect of Shvetambaras.

One can see all-around in the south, the statues of Tirthankars, and Jain temples, testifying to the extensive spread of their religion here over long period of time. In various regions of south India, centres of Jainism were formed but the chief amongst them was the centre in Shravanbelgol in the State of Mysore (where, according to legend, Bhadrabahu who came here a short time before his death, died).

From the thirteenth century Jainism in south India started to decline. In this period anti-feudal movement, the religious ideological expression of which was the teaching of Bhakti (especially the Vishnuite bhakti) started growing. It embraced wide strata of the rural population and the urban handicraftsmen. This movement was so extensive that many representatives of other religious communities joined it. A great number of Jains turned to Vishnuism and the Jain community not only decreased numerically but also lost its influence.

Finally, the Hinduised rulers of south India States ceased to patronise the Jains.
During the period of Mohammedan conquests and especially after the fall of Vijaynagar empire (end of sixteenth century) the Jain community in the south practically lost all its positions.
In north India Mathura, Ujjain and Rajputana were the centres of Jainism (mainly of the Shvetambara sect) in the medieval period. Mathura, was since a long time, a trading city and during the rule of the Satavahan dyansty it turned into one of the main centres of trade with the western countries. Here Jain merchants concentrated, generously subsidising the erection of Jain monasteries and temples in the course of many centuries.

In the north and the north-west, as also in the south, conflicts sometimes flared up between Hindu and Jain communities. The incidents of destruction of Jain temples and their alterations as Hindu temples are known. Also incidents of persecutions and executions of Jains are known.
During the rule of the Mohammedan dynasties, Jains were not subjected to persecution. This can be explained by the fact that they held in their hands many key positions in taxation -fiscal department, in trade and usury and also gave loans to the Moghuls. Jains were rich and influential and precisely in this period built from their own resources richest temples, in Rajputana and Gujarat, which are famous in the whole world. The Jains profited by the patronage of many Rajput kings and were ministers at their court. These Jains who were engaged in trade and usury in Rajputana and Gujarat formed the basis of the communities which was later known by the name of Marwari (from the place of its formation-Marwar).
They did not only engage in trade, usury and in granting big loans to Rajput feudals but also in collecting taxes in buying up handicraft products, in extensively transporting and re-selling and in granting credits in other regions of India and in other similar operations.

Jainism in Bihar

Mr.Helmuth Von Glasnapp



Mahavira was closely connected with the most significant princes of his home land. He visited the most important cities of their kingdoms in Bihar on his wanderings, Champ, Anga’s capital, Mithila in Videha, Rajgriha, the capital of Mithila, etc. and he was most respectfully received everywhere. King Bimbisara (Jainas called him by the name of Shrenik) of Magadha, the same king, who also patronised Buddha, was considered by the Jaina as a special admirer of their master. They therefore presumed that he would be born as a Tirthankara in his later experience. Even Ajatshatru, Bimbasara’s cruel son who exposed his father to death by starvation, was well-disposed towards Jainas. His successor, Udayi, was in fact, a patron of their doctrine. The religion flourished even under the dynasty of nine ‘Nandas’, who had (at the time when Alexander the great marched into India) usurped the throne of the Saisunaga kings, and there was no change in the situation, even when the last unpopular Nanda king was relieved of his throne by the great Maurya king, Chandragupta, the Sandrakottos of the Greeks. Jainas reckon this first historical emperor of India as also his great Chancellor, Chanakya among Jains. Chanakya is said to be a son of a Jaina layman Chani and a diligent champion of their faith. He is said to have weaned Chandragupta from his kindness towards heretics. Thus, due to Chanakya’s influence, Chandragupta became a diligent Jaina and bestowed his favours only on them. Finally, he renounced his throne in accordance with the Digambara tradition, became an ascetic and went to Mysore along-with Saint Bhadrabahu and is said to have lived and died there at Sravana Belgola in a cave.

It is said that Chanakya’s name was darkened by his envious colleague, Subandhu with Chandragupta’s successor, Bindusara (298-273 B.C.) and he was relieved. He therefore distributed his wealth among the poor, sat on a dung-hill outside the city and died there by starvation Bindusara tried his best to pacify him and sent Subandhu to ask for forgiveness but the latter threw at his dung-hill an incense coal so that Chanakya was burnt alive.
Indisputably authentic material is available about the close connection of Bindusara’s son, Ashokavardhana (273-232 B.C.) with Jainas. Ashoka was a great and a far-sighted ruler , who made it a point to promote the religious and moral life in his great empire. He therefore supported the religious brother-hoods of his lands in a liberal manner. Personally, he embraced Buddhism in his later years. Jainas however, opined that he belonged earlier to their religion. In any case, he did not stop in showing equal concern to the welfare of various sects and he appointed special officers to look after individual religious orders. Ashoka has spoken of Jainas in his seventh column-edict (shila-lekha), which deals with the duties of the law authorities, saying that he has made arrangements that his supervisors of law will, apart from other things, deal with the matters of Nigranthas (Jainas) and will deal with all the different religious brother-hoods. He commanded his subjects to show obedience to parents, decent behaviour to saints and ascetics, poor and the miserable, asked them to practice charity, generosity, truthfulness, purity, humility and saintliness and reminds them of prohibition of injury to the living beings. He concluded his commands with the intention that that these may remain valid, as long as his sons and grand sons rule, as long as sun and moon shine and that human beings act according to them. If a person acts according to them, he obtains salvation in this and in the other world.Asoka’ successors to the throne of Magadha were since his son, Kunala was blind, his grand sons, Dasaratha and Samprati. The Jaina-tradition mentions only of Samprati, who is aid to have resided in Ujjain and describes him as a follower of their faith. He is said to have built several Jaina temples and developed a lively missionary activity and erected Jaina monasteries even in non-aryan regions. Not much is known about Jaina faith under the last Maurya rulers and the dynasties which replaced them. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen-Tsiang, came across numerous Nigranthas in Vaisali near Rajgriha, Nalanda, and other places. Jainism appears to have gradually shifted , in an increasing degree, the centre of its activity from its home land, Bihar to other regions.The Exodus and the great conflict

Significant changes took place in the Jaina order during the period when Jaina faith flourished in the Maurya empire. There was a great famine in Bihar during Chandragupta’s rule. Bhadrabahu, the head of the community at that time, realised that it was not possible either for the people to feed a great number of monks under these circumstances, or for ascetics to follow all the precepts. He, therefore, thought that it was advisable to immigrate with a group of devotees to Karnataka, while the remaining monks stayed back in Magadha under the supervision of his pupil Sthulabhadra. The unfavourable period burdened heavily on Magadha and the monks could not strictly observe all the holy customs any more and maintain the holy scriptures. It was therefore found to be necessary to acquire the canon anew. A Council was called for the purpose in Patliputra. This assembly, however, did not succeed in putting together the whole canon. When the monks who had emigrated to Karnataka, returned, they did not approve the resolutions of the Council. Besides, there surfaced a difference in the ascetic conduct of life between those who had emigrated and those who had stayed back. Further, Lord Parsva Nath’s followers were allowed to wear clothes, whereas Mahavira’s followers did not wear any clothes. Mahavira’s pupils followed his example, it appears, the ascetics were not generally moving in nude. Monks staying back in Magadha gave up the custom of moving around in nude and got accustomed to wearing white garments. When the emigrants returned to Magadha, and found that their brothers were wearing white clothes, they had the impression that practices laid down by the Lord had been abandoned. ON the other side, those who had stayed back and adopted white garments, felt that the emigrants were showing undue fanaticism. Thus, there came an estrangement between the two trends, the stricter one of the Digambaras (those who were clothed by the sky) and the shwetambaras (who clothed in white).This trend gradually led to a complete divide or schism. It can not be said how and where the formal separation came in. What is narrated by both the parties , differs widely, because every side tries to show that it alone represents the ancient Jainism and the opposite one had arisen by the succession from the pure faith. However, it has established fairly accurately that final divide took place at the end of the first century.

Each one of the branches of Jaina religion went there own way since that period. The differences between the two, inspite of the division are quite negligible. The most conspicuous of these differences concerning the garments does not seem to be so strict now. On the other hand, there are important differences in the social organisation of the two sects; they trace back to the original differences in faith and rites. Digambaras think that a woman can never get salvation.Their cult idols show the Tirthankaras naked without a loin cloth and without ornaments. shwetambaras show these on their idols. Digambaras do not believe like their opponents that Mahavira, before being born to queen Trishala, was in the womb of Devananda and that he was married before he renounced the world.

The different attitude taken by both the sects with respect to the holy tradition has a far-reaching importance. Both accept that Bhadrabahu was the last Srutakevali and that teachers after him did not possess any knowledge of all the holy scriptures. But, while Digambaras believe that the canon has been gradually completely lost, so that it does not exist now, Swetambaras presume that its main part has come down to the present day. When there was a danger of the collection of the holy scriptures, as far as they had been saved through the stormy times from getting lost, Swetambaras called a meeting of the Council in the year 980 or so after Mahavira’s nirvana under the chairmanship of Devarddhi Gani in the city of Vallabhi in Gujarat. This Council finally edited the canon, and gave it a form which it is said to possess even now for the most part.
Although Swetambaras have a canon and Digambaras do not have it, and although there are differences in the dogmatism and the cult of two sects, the dividing line between them, inspite of all the antagonism has never been so strong. Both the orientations have been constantly aware of their common origin and goal and have never lost spiritual contact with each other. This is most clearly seen from the fact that members of one group very often use philosophical and scientific works of other and that Swetambaras have written commentaries on the works of Digambaras and vice versa.