- A Study of Jain Activity in Western Orissa
- Development of Jainism in Bihar
- Development of Jainism outside Bihar
- Early Jain Influence in Goa
- Jainism in Andhra Pradesh
- Jainism in Bengal: history
- Jainism in Bihar
- Jainism in Karnataka
- Jainism in Kerala
- Jainism in Kerala
- Jainism in Kolhapur (I)
- Jainism in Kolhapur (II)
- Jainism in Maharashtra: History
- Jainism in South India
- Jainism In South India
- jainism in south India history & its cruel conversion to Hinduism
- Jainism in Wyanad
- Jains and Jainism in Kerala
Showing posts with label jainism history. Show all posts
Showing posts with label jainism history. Show all posts
Jul 23, 2011
Jainism Regional History
Index
Nov 1, 2009
The Early Centuries of Jainism
By Mr. Paul Marett
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, so old that we cannot with certainty date its beginnings. Jain tradition tells that Mahavira twenty-forth and last of the Tirthankara or Prophets of the current cycle of the time. Some of the stories about them are truly amazing and non? Jains are rarely convinced. They are credited with enormously long spans of life and gigantic size and various other miraculous attributes. Leaving aside the stories (which are valuable if regarded as edifying stories), we have some historical details about some of them. The first Tirthankara was Rsabha and there are some accounts in non-Jain records which seem to fit in with the broad details of Jain tradition. He is recorded as a king of some ability who gave up his throne to become a wandering ascetic, going around naked (a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions) and frequently scorned or attacked by the ignorant. After Rsabha, Jain tradition gives us the names and some details if the next twenty Tirthankara. They were all men except perhaps the nineteenth, Malli, who is said to have been a woman (though this is not accepted by all Jains.) The twenty? second, Neminatha or Aristanemi (both names are found) is said to have been a relative and contemporary of the Hindu God hero Krishna.
With the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, modern scholars fins themselves on stronger ground. He is recorded as the son of the king of Varanasi (Benaras), the greatest holy city in India. He renounced the worlds at the age of thirty and after a fairly brief period of meditation and austerity he attained enlightenment. Thereafter he preached his message and gathered followers around him. He died, reputedly at the age of 100, passing to his final abode of bliss as a liberated soul. This was about 250 years before the time of Mahavira: Mahavira's parents were followers of the religion of Parsva. He taught four of the five great moral precepts of Jainism, non-violence, truthfulness, non? stealing and non-acquisitiveness, omitting, for reasons which have been disputed, the vow of sexual restraint which was introduced or reintroduced by Mahavira. So with Parsva the Jain religion emerges clearly into the light of history, through darkness falls again in the period between the attainment of moksa or liberation by Parsva in the Parasanatha Hills (in Bihar) around 780 B.C.
We have looked at Mahavira's life in the first chapter. A great many people were impressed by Mahavira's personality and his teachings so that when his life on earth ended he left behind a large number of people (reputed to be as many as a third of a million) who were trying in various ways, in the vocation of Monk (sadhu) or nun (sadhvi) or as lay men (shravaka) and women (shravika), to follow the principles of Jainism. In his lifetime Mahavira appointed eleven leaders (ganadhara)among his followers. Only two of them, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman. were alive at the time of Mahavira's moksa and it was to Sudharman that the task fell of preserving and passing on the teachings of their master, and leading the community, when Mahavira was no longer with them. The order of nuns was headed by Chandana. She had been placed in this position by Mahavira: nuns have always had a important place in Jainism and it is said that the nuns under Chandana outnumbered the Jain monks of the time by more than two to one.
Mahavira and his early followers lived in north?eastern part of India, mainly in ancient kingdom of Magadh (in modern Bihar). Jain missionaries visited Kashmir and even Nepal but it was not until several centuries after Mahavira that Gujarat and the western part of India became the major center of Jainism as it is today. How ever Jainism spread southwards from Magadha into the kingdom of Kalinga (in modern Orissa) whose ruler became a convert. This king, Kharavela, lived in the second or third B.C. We learn from an inscription that he was a pious Jain and provided for monks but he appears to not to have seen military expeditions as incompatible with his religion. This area became an important center of Jainism in the earlier centuries, though we must not forget that we are speaking several hundred years after Mahavira. Much in Indian history of this period is not yet completely clear to historians and the spread of Jainism has to be priced together from scattered, and sometimes cryptic, references. However, for the first centuries it is clear that the centers of this religion were in eastern India. There seem to have been Jains in Bengal from very early times.
The teachings of Jainism made a considerable impact amongst all classes of society. There is even a story that the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya, around 300 B.C., became a Jain monk at the end of his life. Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka, ruled over an empire which included all the sub-continent except the extreme south. As his capital was in the region of Magadha he was doubtless familiar with the Jains and they are mentioned in his records (though Asoka himself was a Buddhist). However, one of Asoka's grandsons was certainly a Jain and he did a lot to further the progress of his faith.
In a religion as ancient as Jainism it is natural that interesting controversies about details of the faith emerge. Whilst Jains are united on the fundamental questions, within that unity many different sects and schools of thought coexist in a tolerant manner. These may be the followers of one revered teacher or a group placing emphasis on certain particular teachings. The important division is between the Svetambara and the Digambara sections. 'Svetambara' means 'dressed in white' and 'Digambara' means 'dressed in the sky', a reference to the fact that Digambara monks renounce all worldly possessions, including clothes, whilst the monks of the Svetambara section wear two pieces of white cloth. The Svetambara (who form probably around two?thirds of all Jains, and the very large majority of those in the United Kingdom) are found in particular in Gujarat and the neighboring areas of western India. The Digambara are strongest in south India. The origins of the split are not clear. One account says that, probably some three hundred years B.C., there was a terrible famine in Bihar. The crops failed, people were dying of starvation and this went on for twelve years. Some of the Jain monks, led by Bhadrabahu, moved southwards away from the famine area. It is said that the monks who left were more rigorous in certain ways than those who stayed behind and when, after the famine was over, they came back it was found that the two groups had drifted apart in some ways. In particular, according to this account, before this time all Jain monks went naked but those who stayed in the north had now taken to wearing a single piece of cloth to cover themselves. Other accounts place the division much later, possibly as late as the second century A.D. Quite probably it was not a sudden split but a slow process. At any rate, to this day the Svetambara and the Digambara differ on certain minor matters, not only the clothing of monks but also such questions as whether a woman can achieve moksa (the Digambara say not until she is reborn as a man), whether Mahavira was married before he gave up the world, and some other points.
In these early centuries, of course, reading and writing were not as common as they are today, and religious teachings (and indeed all other literature, history, stories and songs) were preserved in the memory of people. Mahavira's closest followers must have committed to memory the things which he said in his preachments and after he left them the responsibility of passing on the teachings fell on the new leader of the community, Sudharman, whom we have mentioned above. For nearly two centuries the collected teachings were handed down by word of mouth. It seems wonderful to us today that a man could retain in his memory the fourteen Purva texts, each of them quite a lengthy work, which made up the basic part of the sacred literature of the Jains. But the Jain monks of those early centuries lived a much simpler life than we do today, without the distractions of our complicated modern civilization. Moreover they doubtless did train their memories for the repetition of long texts. Even so it appears that memories were not infallible and only ten of the fourteen Purva texts were still known 200 years after Mahavira. They have now all been lost, though much of their teaching (which was said to go back in part to the time of Parsva) was preserved in other texts, like the twelve Anga texts, eleven of which survive to this day.
The last man who knew all the scriptures by heart was Bhadrabahu and he died 170 years after Mahavira. About that time, around 360 B.C., the Jains were concerned that the memory of the holy scriptures might get lost. It was a difficult time in parts of India with a long famine and the death or dispersal of many monks. Hence a great conference of monks was held at Pataliputra (now called Patna, in Bihar) when the contents of the sacred texts (those which had not been lost) were put in order. Not all Jains believe today that the original scriptures have survived. The Digambara in general feel that the original texts eventually disappeared from knowledge over a fairly long period of time. Some modern scholars believe that some re?editing of the texts must have taken place so that they are not exactly in the original form. Many centuries after the conference at Pataliputra another conference was held at Valabhi, around 460 A.D. when all the sacred scriptures were finally written down, the twelve Anga texts representing the oldest section, with a further thirty?four works which are recognize as rather later in time. There is no doubt that, in spite of some differences of opinion about it, the Jains still have today a collection of ancient religious literature which contains the noble teaching of Mahavira as it was followed two thousand and more years ago. For a very long time these scriptures were studied only by monks and learned men. The language in which they were compiled, called Ardhamagadhi, was once the language of ordinary people in Magadha so that the teachings of Mahavira (who preached in this language) could be understood by them. But Ardhamagadhi died out as a spoken language and only scholars could understood it (though most Jains today know at least some of the ancient prayers in the beautiful and solemn ancient tongue). In recent years, however, many of the Jain writings have been translated into modern Indian languages, as well as into English and other European languages, so that with little trouble we can obtain and read them today.
We have been talking about matters which cover many, many centuries of time. Generation after generation passed, of people much like ourselves, even though they lived two thousand and more years ago. They had the same hopes and fears, the same joys and sorrows. And like Jains everywhere today they had the teachings of Mahavira to guide and support them.
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, so old that we cannot with certainty date its beginnings. Jain tradition tells that Mahavira twenty-forth and last of the Tirthankara or Prophets of the current cycle of the time. Some of the stories about them are truly amazing and non? Jains are rarely convinced. They are credited with enormously long spans of life and gigantic size and various other miraculous attributes. Leaving aside the stories (which are valuable if regarded as edifying stories), we have some historical details about some of them. The first Tirthankara was Rsabha and there are some accounts in non-Jain records which seem to fit in with the broad details of Jain tradition. He is recorded as a king of some ability who gave up his throne to become a wandering ascetic, going around naked (a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions) and frequently scorned or attacked by the ignorant. After Rsabha, Jain tradition gives us the names and some details if the next twenty Tirthankara. They were all men except perhaps the nineteenth, Malli, who is said to have been a woman (though this is not accepted by all Jains.) The twenty? second, Neminatha or Aristanemi (both names are found) is said to have been a relative and contemporary of the Hindu God hero Krishna.
With the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, modern scholars fins themselves on stronger ground. He is recorded as the son of the king of Varanasi (Benaras), the greatest holy city in India. He renounced the worlds at the age of thirty and after a fairly brief period of meditation and austerity he attained enlightenment. Thereafter he preached his message and gathered followers around him. He died, reputedly at the age of 100, passing to his final abode of bliss as a liberated soul. This was about 250 years before the time of Mahavira: Mahavira's parents were followers of the religion of Parsva. He taught four of the five great moral precepts of Jainism, non-violence, truthfulness, non? stealing and non-acquisitiveness, omitting, for reasons which have been disputed, the vow of sexual restraint which was introduced or reintroduced by Mahavira. So with Parsva the Jain religion emerges clearly into the light of history, through darkness falls again in the period between the attainment of moksa or liberation by Parsva in the Parasanatha Hills (in Bihar) around 780 B.C.
We have looked at Mahavira's life in the first chapter. A great many people were impressed by Mahavira's personality and his teachings so that when his life on earth ended he left behind a large number of people (reputed to be as many as a third of a million) who were trying in various ways, in the vocation of Monk (sadhu) or nun (sadhvi) or as lay men (shravaka) and women (shravika), to follow the principles of Jainism. In his lifetime Mahavira appointed eleven leaders (ganadhara)among his followers. Only two of them, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman. were alive at the time of Mahavira's moksa and it was to Sudharman that the task fell of preserving and passing on the teachings of their master, and leading the community, when Mahavira was no longer with them. The order of nuns was headed by Chandana. She had been placed in this position by Mahavira: nuns have always had a important place in Jainism and it is said that the nuns under Chandana outnumbered the Jain monks of the time by more than two to one.
Mahavira and his early followers lived in north?eastern part of India, mainly in ancient kingdom of Magadh (in modern Bihar). Jain missionaries visited Kashmir and even Nepal but it was not until several centuries after Mahavira that Gujarat and the western part of India became the major center of Jainism as it is today. How ever Jainism spread southwards from Magadha into the kingdom of Kalinga (in modern Orissa) whose ruler became a convert. This king, Kharavela, lived in the second or third B.C. We learn from an inscription that he was a pious Jain and provided for monks but he appears to not to have seen military expeditions as incompatible with his religion. This area became an important center of Jainism in the earlier centuries, though we must not forget that we are speaking several hundred years after Mahavira. Much in Indian history of this period is not yet completely clear to historians and the spread of Jainism has to be priced together from scattered, and sometimes cryptic, references. However, for the first centuries it is clear that the centers of this religion were in eastern India. There seem to have been Jains in Bengal from very early times.
The teachings of Jainism made a considerable impact amongst all classes of society. There is even a story that the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya, around 300 B.C., became a Jain monk at the end of his life. Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka, ruled over an empire which included all the sub-continent except the extreme south. As his capital was in the region of Magadha he was doubtless familiar with the Jains and they are mentioned in his records (though Asoka himself was a Buddhist). However, one of Asoka's grandsons was certainly a Jain and he did a lot to further the progress of his faith.
In a religion as ancient as Jainism it is natural that interesting controversies about details of the faith emerge. Whilst Jains are united on the fundamental questions, within that unity many different sects and schools of thought coexist in a tolerant manner. These may be the followers of one revered teacher or a group placing emphasis on certain particular teachings. The important division is between the Svetambara and the Digambara sections. 'Svetambara' means 'dressed in white' and 'Digambara' means 'dressed in the sky', a reference to the fact that Digambara monks renounce all worldly possessions, including clothes, whilst the monks of the Svetambara section wear two pieces of white cloth. The Svetambara (who form probably around two?thirds of all Jains, and the very large majority of those in the United Kingdom) are found in particular in Gujarat and the neighboring areas of western India. The Digambara are strongest in south India. The origins of the split are not clear. One account says that, probably some three hundred years B.C., there was a terrible famine in Bihar. The crops failed, people were dying of starvation and this went on for twelve years. Some of the Jain monks, led by Bhadrabahu, moved southwards away from the famine area. It is said that the monks who left were more rigorous in certain ways than those who stayed behind and when, after the famine was over, they came back it was found that the two groups had drifted apart in some ways. In particular, according to this account, before this time all Jain monks went naked but those who stayed in the north had now taken to wearing a single piece of cloth to cover themselves. Other accounts place the division much later, possibly as late as the second century A.D. Quite probably it was not a sudden split but a slow process. At any rate, to this day the Svetambara and the Digambara differ on certain minor matters, not only the clothing of monks but also such questions as whether a woman can achieve moksa (the Digambara say not until she is reborn as a man), whether Mahavira was married before he gave up the world, and some other points.
In these early centuries, of course, reading and writing were not as common as they are today, and religious teachings (and indeed all other literature, history, stories and songs) were preserved in the memory of people. Mahavira's closest followers must have committed to memory the things which he said in his preachments and after he left them the responsibility of passing on the teachings fell on the new leader of the community, Sudharman, whom we have mentioned above. For nearly two centuries the collected teachings were handed down by word of mouth. It seems wonderful to us today that a man could retain in his memory the fourteen Purva texts, each of them quite a lengthy work, which made up the basic part of the sacred literature of the Jains. But the Jain monks of those early centuries lived a much simpler life than we do today, without the distractions of our complicated modern civilization. Moreover they doubtless did train their memories for the repetition of long texts. Even so it appears that memories were not infallible and only ten of the fourteen Purva texts were still known 200 years after Mahavira. They have now all been lost, though much of their teaching (which was said to go back in part to the time of Parsva) was preserved in other texts, like the twelve Anga texts, eleven of which survive to this day.
The last man who knew all the scriptures by heart was Bhadrabahu and he died 170 years after Mahavira. About that time, around 360 B.C., the Jains were concerned that the memory of the holy scriptures might get lost. It was a difficult time in parts of India with a long famine and the death or dispersal of many monks. Hence a great conference of monks was held at Pataliputra (now called Patna, in Bihar) when the contents of the sacred texts (those which had not been lost) were put in order. Not all Jains believe today that the original scriptures have survived. The Digambara in general feel that the original texts eventually disappeared from knowledge over a fairly long period of time. Some modern scholars believe that some re?editing of the texts must have taken place so that they are not exactly in the original form. Many centuries after the conference at Pataliputra another conference was held at Valabhi, around 460 A.D. when all the sacred scriptures were finally written down, the twelve Anga texts representing the oldest section, with a further thirty?four works which are recognize as rather later in time. There is no doubt that, in spite of some differences of opinion about it, the Jains still have today a collection of ancient religious literature which contains the noble teaching of Mahavira as it was followed two thousand and more years ago. For a very long time these scriptures were studied only by monks and learned men. The language in which they were compiled, called Ardhamagadhi, was once the language of ordinary people in Magadha so that the teachings of Mahavira (who preached in this language) could be understood by them. But Ardhamagadhi died out as a spoken language and only scholars could understood it (though most Jains today know at least some of the ancient prayers in the beautiful and solemn ancient tongue). In recent years, however, many of the Jain writings have been translated into modern Indian languages, as well as into English and other European languages, so that with little trouble we can obtain and read them today.
We have been talking about matters which cover many, many centuries of time. Generation after generation passed, of people much like ourselves, even though they lived two thousand and more years ago. They had the same hopes and fears, the same joys and sorrows. And like Jains everywhere today they had the teachings of Mahavira to guide and support them.
Oct 24, 2009
Kashtha Sangha Bhattarakas of Gwalior and Agrawal Shravakas (1)
Note: Additional information is available on Kashtha Sangha, which Iwill share later.
The Kashtha Sangh was eventually replaced by Mula Sangh in Gwaliorregion. The Agrawal Shravakas eventually mostly became ajain.
Yashwant Malaiya
-----From a text by Dr. K. C. Jain
Kashtha Sangha - Of the twin Sanghas working in Northern India duringour period Kashtha has been traced from the village Kashtha, nearDelhi, on the bank of the Jamuna. The early record of the activitiesof the Kashtha Sangha which originated from Mathura as a matter offact, is not available in regular sequence except in the existenceof metallic images of the Tomara period in, Gwalior in the eleventhcentury. Madhava Sena, pattadhara of Pratap Sena is said to, haveachieved victory in debate at the court of Alauddin Khilji. Earliestdate of a Kashtha Bhattarak, made available, is that of Vimalasena,the consecrator of two images of the fourteenth century A.D. tracedin Jaipur and Delhi dated 1357 and 1371 A.D. respectively. Names ofhis successors on the patta, yielded by the Kashtha Sangha Pattavali,are Dharmasena of Hissar.15 Bhavasena and Sahasrakirti until we cometo Gunakirti whose known date is V. 1460 = 1403 A.D. when PanditKhemal Khandelwal had presented a copy of the Uttarpurana ofPushpadanta to Gunakirti.
Gunakirti (1403-24) : With Gunakirti; we are on sure grounds aboutthe activities of the Kashtha Sangha in Gwalior for reasons whichapply equally to Bhattaraks of all Sanghas during this periodincluding the Mula Sangha which also flourished simultaneously inGwalior with exemplary fraternity16 during a period when its Kashthacounterpart of the Mathur gachchha had completely dominated thereligious life of the Jaina Samaj in the fifteenth century rule ofthe patronizing Tomaras in the background of the religio-literaryachievements of the Poet-Laureate, Mahakavi Raidhu. With thedisintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the provincial kingdoms,independent in all respects, proved to be the best patrons of theJaina local culture as we have seen in the case of the neighbouringMandogarh ruled by the Turkish families of Ghoris and Khilchis.Simultaneously with Malwa, the Jaina Samaj of Gwalior not onlycultivated their time-honoured idolatry on a grand extensive scalebut a prolific devotee of Saraswati in Gwalior like Raidhu couldleave behind single handed the Mandn-Sangram-Punja trinity ofMandogarh in the realm of idolatrous literary production. The creditfor all this distinction and development in Gwalior goes to theKashthasanghi Bhataraks in general and to Gunakirti and his discipleyounger brother Yashahkirit in particular.
Gunakirti was distinguished equally well in learning, penance andresulting influence that he wielded on the local Rajput rulers of histimes and their senior ministers and treasurers of the Jaina Agrawalcommunity as per the tributes paid to his qualities of head and heartby Raidhu and the writer of the Kashtha Pattavali document.Extraordinary penance, practised by him, had reduced him to anemaciated being. The extensive carving of images, small andcolossal, accomplished with a vengeance during the reign of DungarSinha (1425 = 59 A.D.) was originally inspired by Gunakirti and hisdisciples.
Yashahakirti (1429-53) : Yashahakirit happens to be a younger brotherand disciple of Bhattarak Gunakirti - a writer of good hand andscholar of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhransh in which last his fourworks from his pen are extant. He has been extolled in the pattavaliand by the poet Raidhu who regarded him as his 'mantra guru'. He isknown as the transcriber of the decayed and ragged fragment of thefamous Harivansha Purana of Mahakavi Swayambhudeva which he copiedout with the permission of his guru, sitting in a temple in thevicinity of Gwalior at Kumaranagar (now Khumharapura) on the bank ofthe river Murar (1521 = 1464), completing the missing portion of themanuscript with his own composition. This autograph transcript ofYashahakirti is preserved in the Bhandarkar Oriental ResearchInstitute, Poona.17 Himself the author of the four Apabhransha worksextant today, Yashahakirti encouraged Radihu to compose manyApabhransha Kavya and caused the Jaina Seths of Delhi and Hissar toget chiselled the colossal images of Gwalior fort by skilledhandicraftsmen.
After Yashahakirti Bh. Malayakirti (1453-68 A.D.) and Bh. Gunabhadra(1468-83) occupied the Kashtha gaddi of Gwalior of which the latteris the author of fifteen Apabhransha Kathas, preserved in thePanchayati Mandir of the Khajur Masjid, Delhi but written in aGwalior temple. The pattadhar of Gunabhadra. Bh. Bhanukirti was alsothe author of a Katha called Ravivrat Katha.
The pattavali of Gwalior gaddi referred to by Parmanand Shastri18seems to be incomplete. After Bhanukirti the name of Kamalkirti hasbeen introduced followed by names of Bhattaraks which seem to bethose of the Hissar patta of the Kashtha Sangha including the name ofKamala Kirti who was the 'diksha-guru' of Raidhu and who establishedthe Sonagiri patta of the Gwalior gaddi on which his discipleShubhachandra was seated as its first pattadhara (1449-73). In thenon-availability of further link in the personnel of the Bhattarakasof the Kashtha Sangha we have to stop here and take up the activityof the Kashtha Sangha which constitutes virtually the Golden Age ofthe Jaina Digambara Church in Gwalior under the Tomara rulersinspired by the Kashtha Bhattarakas and their Jaina Agrawal discipleswho dominated the Court of father and son viz. Dungar Singh (1425-59)and Kirti Singh (1459-80) with the Poet-Laureate Raidhu as theirmouthpiece and spokesman, a centenarian author of as many as thirtybooks, big and small of which two dozen are reported to be extanttoday. Verify the advent of the Hisar-Firuza-based Jaina Agrawals whofunctioned as the ministers and treasurers of the ruling family hadturned the Rajput State of Gwalior into a Digambara Jaina Centre parexcellence representing the culture of the Agrawal multi-millionnershravakas as sponsored by them. It was a great achievement of theKashtha Sanghi Bhattaraks in which they excelled their their MulaSanghi counterparts of the Dhilli 'patta, the shravakas leavingbehind their Svetambara rivals of Mandogarh in the literary fieldthanks to the single handed efforts of the long lived Mahakavi Raidhuas also in the realm of image carving in general and the chisellingof the calossal images of the Gwalior Fort in particular in which thecontribution of the two Tomara rulers between themselves has left arecord of constant activities spreading over a long period of thirty-three years.
The Kashtha Sangh was eventually replaced by Mula Sangh in Gwaliorregion. The Agrawal Shravakas eventually mostly became ajain.
Yashwant Malaiya
-----From a text by Dr. K. C. Jain
Kashtha Sangha - Of the twin Sanghas working in Northern India duringour period Kashtha has been traced from the village Kashtha, nearDelhi, on the bank of the Jamuna. The early record of the activitiesof the Kashtha Sangha which originated from Mathura as a matter offact, is not available in regular sequence except in the existenceof metallic images of the Tomara period in, Gwalior in the eleventhcentury. Madhava Sena, pattadhara of Pratap Sena is said to, haveachieved victory in debate at the court of Alauddin Khilji. Earliestdate of a Kashtha Bhattarak, made available, is that of Vimalasena,the consecrator of two images of the fourteenth century A.D. tracedin Jaipur and Delhi dated 1357 and 1371 A.D. respectively. Names ofhis successors on the patta, yielded by the Kashtha Sangha Pattavali,are Dharmasena of Hissar.15 Bhavasena and Sahasrakirti until we cometo Gunakirti whose known date is V. 1460 = 1403 A.D. when PanditKhemal Khandelwal had presented a copy of the Uttarpurana ofPushpadanta to Gunakirti.
Gunakirti (1403-24) : With Gunakirti; we are on sure grounds aboutthe activities of the Kashtha Sangha in Gwalior for reasons whichapply equally to Bhattaraks of all Sanghas during this periodincluding the Mula Sangha which also flourished simultaneously inGwalior with exemplary fraternity16 during a period when its Kashthacounterpart of the Mathur gachchha had completely dominated thereligious life of the Jaina Samaj in the fifteenth century rule ofthe patronizing Tomaras in the background of the religio-literaryachievements of the Poet-Laureate, Mahakavi Raidhu. With thedisintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the provincial kingdoms,independent in all respects, proved to be the best patrons of theJaina local culture as we have seen in the case of the neighbouringMandogarh ruled by the Turkish families of Ghoris and Khilchis.Simultaneously with Malwa, the Jaina Samaj of Gwalior not onlycultivated their time-honoured idolatry on a grand extensive scalebut a prolific devotee of Saraswati in Gwalior like Raidhu couldleave behind single handed the Mandn-Sangram-Punja trinity ofMandogarh in the realm of idolatrous literary production. The creditfor all this distinction and development in Gwalior goes to theKashthasanghi Bhataraks in general and to Gunakirti and his discipleyounger brother Yashahkirit in particular.
Gunakirti was distinguished equally well in learning, penance andresulting influence that he wielded on the local Rajput rulers of histimes and their senior ministers and treasurers of the Jaina Agrawalcommunity as per the tributes paid to his qualities of head and heartby Raidhu and the writer of the Kashtha Pattavali document.Extraordinary penance, practised by him, had reduced him to anemaciated being. The extensive carving of images, small andcolossal, accomplished with a vengeance during the reign of DungarSinha (1425 = 59 A.D.) was originally inspired by Gunakirti and hisdisciples.
Yashahakirti (1429-53) : Yashahakirit happens to be a younger brotherand disciple of Bhattarak Gunakirti - a writer of good hand andscholar of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhransh in which last his fourworks from his pen are extant. He has been extolled in the pattavaliand by the poet Raidhu who regarded him as his 'mantra guru'. He isknown as the transcriber of the decayed and ragged fragment of thefamous Harivansha Purana of Mahakavi Swayambhudeva which he copiedout with the permission of his guru, sitting in a temple in thevicinity of Gwalior at Kumaranagar (now Khumharapura) on the bank ofthe river Murar (1521 = 1464), completing the missing portion of themanuscript with his own composition. This autograph transcript ofYashahakirti is preserved in the Bhandarkar Oriental ResearchInstitute, Poona.17 Himself the author of the four Apabhransha worksextant today, Yashahakirti encouraged Radihu to compose manyApabhransha Kavya and caused the Jaina Seths of Delhi and Hissar toget chiselled the colossal images of Gwalior fort by skilledhandicraftsmen.
After Yashahakirti Bh. Malayakirti (1453-68 A.D.) and Bh. Gunabhadra(1468-83) occupied the Kashtha gaddi of Gwalior of which the latteris the author of fifteen Apabhransha Kathas, preserved in thePanchayati Mandir of the Khajur Masjid, Delhi but written in aGwalior temple. The pattadhar of Gunabhadra. Bh. Bhanukirti was alsothe author of a Katha called Ravivrat Katha.
The pattavali of Gwalior gaddi referred to by Parmanand Shastri18seems to be incomplete. After Bhanukirti the name of Kamalkirti hasbeen introduced followed by names of Bhattaraks which seem to bethose of the Hissar patta of the Kashtha Sangha including the name ofKamala Kirti who was the 'diksha-guru' of Raidhu and who establishedthe Sonagiri patta of the Gwalior gaddi on which his discipleShubhachandra was seated as its first pattadhara (1449-73). In thenon-availability of further link in the personnel of the Bhattarakasof the Kashtha Sangha we have to stop here and take up the activityof the Kashtha Sangha which constitutes virtually the Golden Age ofthe Jaina Digambara Church in Gwalior under the Tomara rulersinspired by the Kashtha Bhattarakas and their Jaina Agrawal discipleswho dominated the Court of father and son viz. Dungar Singh (1425-59)and Kirti Singh (1459-80) with the Poet-Laureate Raidhu as theirmouthpiece and spokesman, a centenarian author of as many as thirtybooks, big and small of which two dozen are reported to be extanttoday. Verify the advent of the Hisar-Firuza-based Jaina Agrawals whofunctioned as the ministers and treasurers of the ruling family hadturned the Rajput State of Gwalior into a Digambara Jaina Centre parexcellence representing the culture of the Agrawal multi-millionnershravakas as sponsored by them. It was a great achievement of theKashtha Sanghi Bhattaraks in which they excelled their their MulaSanghi counterparts of the Dhilli 'patta, the shravakas leavingbehind their Svetambara rivals of Mandogarh in the literary fieldthanks to the single handed efforts of the long lived Mahakavi Raidhuas also in the realm of image carving in general and the chisellingof the calossal images of the Gwalior Fort in particular in which thecontribution of the two Tomara rulers between themselves has left arecord of constant activities spreading over a long period of thirty-three years.
Oct 23, 2009
Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2)
Jain Vestiges in Coimbatore District (2): identification of Perur
M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D
Continues from part 1
The question that has to be decided here is the identification ofPerur mentioned in Ganga records. Taken in conjusction with thehistory of the Rattas, the Kongadesarajakkal furnishes proof that itwas on their fall that the Gangas rose to power and began ruling fromSkandapura in Kongudesa (which is the ancient name for the territorycomprising the modern disteicts of Coimbatore and Salem). TheChronicle would even inform us that the last Ratta ruler changed hisreligion from Jainism to Saivism and that was the cause of hisdownfall. Further, all the early activities of Konganivarman-as thefirst historical ruler of the Ganga house becomes known in all therecords of this dynasty-are confined to this Kongudesa.(Kongadesarajakkal (Or Mss. Edn.) pp. 2-3). It is true that we lackdefinite epigraphic evidence in support of this, which we have mainlyonly from the Tamil chronicle above referred to. But it must beremembered that in the first place we have only a few records for theGanga period here referred to; and even the few references that wehave to the early grants of the Gangas seem to refer only to placesin Coimbatore district. Such are places like "Kudluru" to the west ofthe Tatla and east of "Marukarevisaya", in which the names of Kudluruand Marukarevisaya are easily identifiable with the present Gudalurand Madukari in this area. (Kudaluru grant of Madhavavarman; MAR.,1930).
The conclusion naturally follows that Per here referred to as thespot on which Madhava was initiated into Jainism and conferred akingdom on condition that he upheld it through all its confines mustbe the Perur within 3 miles from Coimbatore. We have numerousevidences to show that at the time referred to and for longafterwards this Perur was indeed an important place. The placereferred to by this name cannot be the Perur in Cuddapah district, asRice surmises, where no Jain remains are to be found. The tratditionis that Dadiga and Madhava were sent to the south of Mysore, asalready indicated. Further, the very title assumed by the first ruleras Madhava Konganivarman seems to give an unmistakable proof of thisconclusion, since as the Kongadesarajakkal aptly remarks:
"As wealth, the Kongu country and great
munificence were possessed by him he was
styled srimalt Konganivarman Dharmamahadiraja."(Kongadesarajakkal(Taylor's trans.); MJLS., XIV)
While the mention of Simhanandi as a "person of the southern country'in the inscription at Parsvanatha Basti at Sravana Belgola alreadyreferred to, seems to set the seal upon this conclusion.
to cont.
M. AROKIASWAMI, M.A., Ph.D
Continues from part 1
The question that has to be decided here is the identification ofPerur mentioned in Ganga records. Taken in conjusction with thehistory of the Rattas, the Kongadesarajakkal furnishes proof that itwas on their fall that the Gangas rose to power and began ruling fromSkandapura in Kongudesa (which is the ancient name for the territorycomprising the modern disteicts of Coimbatore and Salem). TheChronicle would even inform us that the last Ratta ruler changed hisreligion from Jainism to Saivism and that was the cause of hisdownfall. Further, all the early activities of Konganivarman-as thefirst historical ruler of the Ganga house becomes known in all therecords of this dynasty-are confined to this Kongudesa.(Kongadesarajakkal (Or Mss. Edn.) pp. 2-3). It is true that we lackdefinite epigraphic evidence in support of this, which we have mainlyonly from the Tamil chronicle above referred to. But it must beremembered that in the first place we have only a few records for theGanga period here referred to; and even the few references that wehave to the early grants of the Gangas seem to refer only to placesin Coimbatore district. Such are places like "Kudluru" to the west ofthe Tatla and east of "Marukarevisaya", in which the names of Kudluruand Marukarevisaya are easily identifiable with the present Gudalurand Madukari in this area. (Kudaluru grant of Madhavavarman; MAR.,1930).
The conclusion naturally follows that Per here referred to as thespot on which Madhava was initiated into Jainism and conferred akingdom on condition that he upheld it through all its confines mustbe the Perur within 3 miles from Coimbatore. We have numerousevidences to show that at the time referred to and for longafterwards this Perur was indeed an important place. The placereferred to by this name cannot be the Perur in Cuddapah district, asRice surmises, where no Jain remains are to be found. The tratditionis that Dadiga and Madhava were sent to the south of Mysore, asalready indicated. Further, the very title assumed by the first ruleras Madhava Konganivarman seems to give an unmistakable proof of thisconclusion, since as the Kongadesarajakkal aptly remarks:
"As wealth, the Kongu country and great
munificence were possessed by him he was
styled srimalt Konganivarman Dharmamahadiraja."(Kongadesarajakkal(Taylor's trans.); MJLS., XIV)
While the mention of Simhanandi as a "person of the southern country'in the inscription at Parsvanatha Basti at Sravana Belgola alreadyreferred to, seems to set the seal upon this conclusion.
to cont.
Oct 18, 2009
Early Jainism Influence in Goa
Jainism is another ancient religion of India, similar to but olderthan Buddhism. Founded and popularized by Shree Mahavir Swami. UnlikeBuddhism which has almost no followers in India today, Jainism has avery strong presence in India. Many of its present day followers canbe identified by their last name 'Jain".
There are ruins of three Jain temples belonging to Vijayanagarperiod. The first Jain Basti of Neminath is from Bandivade of Pondataluka. The other two Jain temples are located in Cudnem and Jainkotarea of Narve and both these temples belong to the Vijayanagar period.
Ruins of the Neminath Jain Basti at Bandivade
A stone inscription from Nagueshi exhibited in the Museum ofArchaeological Survey of India refers to the reconstruction of thisJain Basti during Vijayanagar period in 14th century. The NeminathBasti of Bandivade is square shaped and built of laterite blocks withgrilled windows. An arch is provided at the entrance. It is possiblethat a dome existed over the structure. Lime mortar has been found tohave been used extensively as the binding material.
Ruins of the Cudnem Jain Temple.
The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" are constructed oflaterite with Lime mortar being used as the the binding material. Theentrance of garbagriha has an arch. The laterite blocks discovered inthe excavation clearly indicate that there were arches in the "MukhaMandapa". These arches were embellished with a laterite floralpendant at the center of the arch. One such floral pendant has beendiscovered in a recently conducted excavation. The presence of thesearches strongly suggest that there was a overlying dome covering thetemple. This "Mukha Mandapa" is 8 x 8.30 meters. There are fourpillars in the center and four others on each side wall.The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" stand on a 2meterhigh platform. The octagonal "Shikara" of the "Garbagriha" has fivetiers. The lower most is half spherical with a rectangular smallentrance for the "Garbagriha".
This is the only medieval temple of Goa which has a "Nagara" (Indo-Aryan) architectural features. The high platform and the tall Shikaragive a sense of soaring height to the temple. The "Mukha Mandapa" hasa gabled roof with tiles. A "Prakara" wall with a base of pillarshas also been unearthed. This Jain temple is similar to theSaptakoteshwar temple of Narve and the Chandranath temple of Paroda.It is possible that this temple was the forerunner of thesearchitecturally similar temples. The use of Lime mortar and thearchitectural features indicate that the temple belonged toVijayanagar period. A broken stone head of a "Teerathankara" or aJain saint, with beautifully sculpted curls was also found nearthe "Garbagriha". A stone torso of another Jain "Teerathankara" witha "Srivasta" symbol was also unearthed. Another find occurred whiledesilting a nearby well in the vicinity of the temple. At a depth of5 meters, the right leg of a Statue was discovered. It appears thatthe broken head and the leg belonged to the same image. This image ofa "Teerathankara" belongs to the Kadamba period. It however appearsthat Jains during the Kadamba period were not prosperous to beginwith but in the subsequent Vijayanagar Period, they might have gainedprosperity due to their active participation in mercantile activity.
Ruins of the Narve Jain Temple.
The ruins today are called "Jainkot" and are located in the Villageof Narve in Bicholim taluka. They lie very near the present temple ofSaptakoteshwar . In front of the Saptakoteshwar temple, there isancient pathway constructed of locally available laterite slabswhich lead to the ruins of Jain temple. These consist of mainly doorjams, ceiling canopy and lintels chlorite schist. The Jain temple wasbuilt of laterite. Lime mortar has also been noted to have beenused extensively here also. In an inscription there is only a mentionof the name "Sparsvanath" and along with the name of the month andday, corresponding to the English calendar date of March 13th, 1151AD. During this period the Kadambas were in power and its ruler atthat time was King Vijayaditya.
There are ruins of three Jain temples belonging to Vijayanagarperiod. The first Jain Basti of Neminath is from Bandivade of Pondataluka. The other two Jain temples are located in Cudnem and Jainkotarea of Narve and both these temples belong to the Vijayanagar period.
Ruins of the Neminath Jain Basti at Bandivade
A stone inscription from Nagueshi exhibited in the Museum ofArchaeological Survey of India refers to the reconstruction of thisJain Basti during Vijayanagar period in 14th century. The NeminathBasti of Bandivade is square shaped and built of laterite blocks withgrilled windows. An arch is provided at the entrance. It is possiblethat a dome existed over the structure. Lime mortar has been found tohave been used extensively as the binding material.
Ruins of the Cudnem Jain Temple.
The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" are constructed oflaterite with Lime mortar being used as the the binding material. Theentrance of garbagriha has an arch. The laterite blocks discovered inthe excavation clearly indicate that there were arches in the "MukhaMandapa". These arches were embellished with a laterite floralpendant at the center of the arch. One such floral pendant has beendiscovered in a recently conducted excavation. The presence of thesearches strongly suggest that there was a overlying dome covering thetemple. This "Mukha Mandapa" is 8 x 8.30 meters. There are fourpillars in the center and four others on each side wall.The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" stand on a 2meterhigh platform. The octagonal "Shikara" of the "Garbagriha" has fivetiers. The lower most is half spherical with a rectangular smallentrance for the "Garbagriha".
This is the only medieval temple of Goa which has a "Nagara" (Indo-Aryan) architectural features. The high platform and the tall Shikaragive a sense of soaring height to the temple. The "Mukha Mandapa" hasa gabled roof with tiles. A "Prakara" wall with a base of pillarshas also been unearthed. This Jain temple is similar to theSaptakoteshwar temple of Narve and the Chandranath temple of Paroda.It is possible that this temple was the forerunner of thesearchitecturally similar temples. The use of Lime mortar and thearchitectural features indicate that the temple belonged toVijayanagar period. A broken stone head of a "Teerathankara" or aJain saint, with beautifully sculpted curls was also found nearthe "Garbagriha". A stone torso of another Jain "Teerathankara" witha "Srivasta" symbol was also unearthed. Another find occurred whiledesilting a nearby well in the vicinity of the temple. At a depth of5 meters, the right leg of a Statue was discovered. It appears thatthe broken head and the leg belonged to the same image. This image ofa "Teerathankara" belongs to the Kadamba period. It however appearsthat Jains during the Kadamba period were not prosperous to beginwith but in the subsequent Vijayanagar Period, they might have gainedprosperity due to their active participation in mercantile activity.
Ruins of the Narve Jain Temple.
The ruins today are called "Jainkot" and are located in the Villageof Narve in Bicholim taluka. They lie very near the present temple ofSaptakoteshwar . In front of the Saptakoteshwar temple, there isancient pathway constructed of locally available laterite slabswhich lead to the ruins of Jain temple. These consist of mainly doorjams, ceiling canopy and lintels chlorite schist. The Jain temple wasbuilt of laterite. Lime mortar has also been noted to have beenused extensively here also. In an inscription there is only a mentionof the name "Sparsvanath" and along with the name of the month andday, corresponding to the English calendar date of March 13th, 1151AD. During this period the Kadambas were in power and its ruler atthat time was King Vijayaditya.
Oct 9, 2009
A description of Jainism from Dabistan-e-Madahib (1)
Dabistan-e-Madahib (School of Manners) is an extremely rare andunusual examination of several religions, written around 1655 in Farsi. It has been assmed that the author may have been a Muslim,however a careful examinations shows that the author was in fact aParsi of Sipasis or Abadis sect. The author was either originallyfrom Iran, or a recent descendant of an immigrant from Iran.
The author was born during the rule of Jehangir in a Mobed (ParsiPriest) family. He spent time in Patna, Kasmir, Lahor, Surat andSrikakul (Orissa). He must have been a person of great scolarshipand curiosity. He mentions numerous interviews with scholars ofnumerous faiths.
In chapter II, on doctaries of the Indian (Hindu) people, variousIndian traditions are described.
The section XI "On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha" isactually all about Jainism. It presents an extremely rare view ofJainism, as viewed by an outsider. India was then country underMuslim rule, however the author's perspective is neither Muslim norHindu.
There are a couple of copies of the text in Khudabaksh Library.http://kblibrary.nic.in/Vol16/BP138.htm
The translation is by David Shea and Anthony Troyer done in 1843. Atthat time Jainism was not well known, and there appear to be someflaws intranslations.
The translators' notes are included below.
The translators had some difficulty with the word "Srivara". It mustbe from prakrit "sevada" i.e. swta-pata in Sanskrit, a term fromwhite-clad monks. The term Yati is applicable to to Swetambaras andDigambaras, but it seems that the author was mostly familiar with Swetambaras.
Obviously Lunugi=followers of Lonka Shah and Pujaris=murtipujak.
Yashwant Malaiya
---
SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF BUDDHA.
These sectaries are also called Jatis.*1 They have no belief inincarnations or Avatars of the Deity, but they admit the transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several otherdogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more detestablethan the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune befals anyone of them, they say: "Hast thou perchance done some good to aBrahman, or drunk some water of the bone devourer: so they call theGanges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, throwtheir bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act.
The Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; onwhich account they do not like to pass through water, for fear thatan animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food,never put their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, theyfilter it first through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that noliving animal may remain in it, and then steep this piece of clothawhile in water, in order that, if a living being stick thereto, itmay be separated, and take its place in the liquid.
A great number of the Banians or traders are of this sect; for themost part they sell corn, and some get a livelihood as servants. Thedurvishes of this class are called Srivaras and Jatis.*2 They pluckthe hair of their head and beard by means of tweezers.*3 When theytravel, they carry a besom of the bark of a soft tree with them, andout of regard for the life of animals, they sweep the road with itbefore they put down their feet, that no living insect may bedestroyed. When they speak, they hold a handkerchief before theirmouth, not to swallow a fly or other insect.
They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy andsanctity; these they call Jatis, who never behold the face of awoman. Those of this sect who are married, called Grihastfa,* showgreat regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of respect,they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a Jati intheir house, they do whatever he orders, according to their power.
They are divided into two classes: the Lunugi and Pujaris. The firstare those who adore God as one, and think him free from allimperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and whoworship no idol. The Pujaris venerate the image of a deity, and havetemples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at thetime of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take onlyas much food as may not cause a privation to the people of thehouse: thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. Theydrink no cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever anybody has warm water for bathing, they take a little of it, andhaving thus collected sufficient water, they let it cool and thendrink it.
Similar to the durvishes of both classes is a third sect, calledMaha-atma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they donot pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulatemoney, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and taketo them a wife.
Farzanah Khushi says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a srivara,and requested him to give me a full account, which may be deemedtrue beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related asfollows: "The men of my faith may live retired from the world, ordevoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are manyof them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge."
One of the Mahaatmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich mandevoted herself to his service; one day she complained to him of theunkindness of her husband; the srivara gave no answer; wherefore thewoman said: "Another time I will not wait on thee, because thoutakest no interest in me." The srivara rejoined: "If even thy visitwere agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee." He thentook up a bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to thewoman, saying: "Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee." Thewoman returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon astone, intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband enteredinto the room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon thestone. When night fell in, they shut the door of the house. Thestone at every moment jumped from its place, knocked against theboard of the door, and fell back: the woman and her husband wereastonished. The man asked his wife the reason of it, and she, fromfear, told him what had taken place. The man rose and opened thedoor of the house; the stone was set in motion, and rolled on untilit reached the house of the Mahaatma.
Many other similar stories are told of the Srivaras. Khushi saidthat he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power ofincantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declaredthat this man was really a Jati, but not a Maha-atma.
The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number ofSrivaras and their followers. From them he knew Meher chand, a Lunu,in the year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotarah, which isunder the dominion of Jodpur Marawar, he found also Siva rama, aPujari, in Mirta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one namedJagna, a Banian, in Rawel Pandi: he was adorned with all the goodqualities of Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, hebought it of him and set it free.
This sect do whatever they can for the liberation of living beings.Many of them are rajas in several places and countries. When onebrings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and is disposed to killit, they come from their shops and buy the animal at a high price;thus it has been seen that, having assembled from person to takecare of them. It is said, that in Guzeall hands a great number ofsheep, they appointed a rat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one day,a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having pickedvermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed;the Durvish said: "If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;"the Banian offered a pie;*1 the other wanted more and more, untilthe bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which theBanian paid for the liberation of the offensive insect.
Hafiz Shirazi says:
"Avoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest,For in my book of laws there is no crime but this."
Notes:
1. More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section appears toapply more properly to the Jainas, that is, to one of the greatdivisions of the followers of Buddha. The Jainas are subdivided intoa great number of tribes and religious sects, a long series of whichis enumerated in the work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363).
2. In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the Jatis, or Yatis, alsocalled Sevras among the Jainas of Guzerat and Marwar. According tothe same authority (Transact. R. A. S., vol. III. p. 344), these aredistinguished from the Sravakas, as the laity of the Jainas arecalled in that country.
According to Major de la Maine (work quoted,vol. I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of theearlier Jains or Arhats. "Sravakas," says Doctor Buchanan Hamilton(ibid., p. 531), "is the name given to the Jains in the districts ofBahar and Patna." The three authors just quoted agree in statingthat the priests of the Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistanreads, Srivarah, which may be correct "the electof happiness."
3. Lunchita-kesa, "hair-pluckers," is one of the nicknames given tothe Swetambaras, "clad in white," a sect of the Jainas (Colebrooke,work quoted, p. 551).
4. "A householder."
The author was born during the rule of Jehangir in a Mobed (ParsiPriest) family. He spent time in Patna, Kasmir, Lahor, Surat andSrikakul (Orissa). He must have been a person of great scolarshipand curiosity. He mentions numerous interviews with scholars ofnumerous faiths.
In chapter II, on doctaries of the Indian (Hindu) people, variousIndian traditions are described.
The section XI "On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha" isactually all about Jainism. It presents an extremely rare view ofJainism, as viewed by an outsider. India was then country underMuslim rule, however the author's perspective is neither Muslim norHindu.
There are a couple of copies of the text in Khudabaksh Library.http://kblibrary.nic.in/Vol16/BP138.htm
The translation is by David Shea and Anthony Troyer done in 1843. Atthat time Jainism was not well known, and there appear to be someflaws intranslations.
The translators' notes are included below.
The translators had some difficulty with the word "Srivara". It mustbe from prakrit "sevada" i.e. swta-pata in Sanskrit, a term fromwhite-clad monks. The term Yati is applicable to to Swetambaras andDigambaras, but it seems that the author was mostly familiar with Swetambaras.
Obviously Lunugi=followers of Lonka Shah and Pujaris=murtipujak.
Yashwant Malaiya
---
SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF BUDDHA.
These sectaries are also called Jatis.*1 They have no belief inincarnations or Avatars of the Deity, but they admit the transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several otherdogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more detestablethan the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune befals anyone of them, they say: "Hast thou perchance done some good to aBrahman, or drunk some water of the bone devourer: so they call theGanges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, throwtheir bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act.
The Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; onwhich account they do not like to pass through water, for fear thatan animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food,never put their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, theyfilter it first through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that noliving animal may remain in it, and then steep this piece of clothawhile in water, in order that, if a living being stick thereto, itmay be separated, and take its place in the liquid.
A great number of the Banians or traders are of this sect; for themost part they sell corn, and some get a livelihood as servants. Thedurvishes of this class are called Srivaras and Jatis.*2 They pluckthe hair of their head and beard by means of tweezers.*3 When theytravel, they carry a besom of the bark of a soft tree with them, andout of regard for the life of animals, they sweep the road with itbefore they put down their feet, that no living insect may bedestroyed. When they speak, they hold a handkerchief before theirmouth, not to swallow a fly or other insect.
They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy andsanctity; these they call Jatis, who never behold the face of awoman. Those of this sect who are married, called Grihastfa,* showgreat regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of respect,they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a Jati intheir house, they do whatever he orders, according to their power.
They are divided into two classes: the Lunugi and Pujaris. The firstare those who adore God as one, and think him free from allimperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and whoworship no idol. The Pujaris venerate the image of a deity, and havetemples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at thetime of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take onlyas much food as may not cause a privation to the people of thehouse: thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. Theydrink no cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever anybody has warm water for bathing, they take a little of it, andhaving thus collected sufficient water, they let it cool and thendrink it.
Similar to the durvishes of both classes is a third sect, calledMaha-atma; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they donot pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulatemoney, cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and taketo them a wife.
Farzanah Khushi says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a srivara,and requested him to give me a full account, which may be deemedtrue beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related asfollows: "The men of my faith may live retired from the world, ordevoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are manyof them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge."
One of the Mahaatmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich mandevoted herself to his service; one day she complained to him of theunkindness of her husband; the srivara gave no answer; wherefore thewoman said: "Another time I will not wait on thee, because thoutakest no interest in me." The srivara rejoined: "If even thy visitwere agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee." He thentook up a bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to thewoman, saying: "Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee." Thewoman returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon astone, intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband enteredinto the room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon thestone. When night fell in, they shut the door of the house. Thestone at every moment jumped from its place, knocked against theboard of the door, and fell back: the woman and her husband wereastonished. The man asked his wife the reason of it, and she, fromfear, told him what had taken place. The man rose and opened thedoor of the house; the stone was set in motion, and rolled on untilit reached the house of the Mahaatma.
Many other similar stories are told of the Srivaras. Khushi saidthat he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power ofincantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declaredthat this man was really a Jati, but not a Maha-atma.
The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number ofSrivaras and their followers. From them he knew Meher chand, a Lunu,in the year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotarah, which isunder the dominion of Jodpur Marawar, he found also Siva rama, aPujari, in Mirta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one namedJagna, a Banian, in Rawel Pandi: he was adorned with all the goodqualities of Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, hebought it of him and set it free.
This sect do whatever they can for the liberation of living beings.Many of them are rajas in several places and countries. When onebrings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and is disposed to killit, they come from their shops and buy the animal at a high price;thus it has been seen that, having assembled from person to takecare of them. It is said, that in Guzeall hands a great number ofsheep, they appointed a rat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one day,a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having pickedvermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed;the Durvish said: "If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;"the Banian offered a pie;*1 the other wanted more and more, untilthe bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which theBanian paid for the liberation of the offensive insect.
Hafiz Shirazi says:
"Avoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest,For in my book of laws there is no crime but this."
Notes:
1. More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section appears toapply more properly to the Jainas, that is, to one of the greatdivisions of the followers of Buddha. The Jainas are subdivided intoa great number of tribes and religious sects, a long series of whichis enumerated in the work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363).
2. In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the Jatis, or Yatis, alsocalled Sevras among the Jainas of Guzerat and Marwar. According tothe same authority (Transact. R. A. S., vol. III. p. 344), these aredistinguished from the Sravakas, as the laity of the Jainas arecalled in that country.
According to Major de la Maine (work quoted,vol. I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of theearlier Jains or Arhats. "Sravakas," says Doctor Buchanan Hamilton(ibid., p. 531), "is the name given to the Jains in the districts ofBahar and Patna." The three authors just quoted agree in statingthat the priests of the Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistanreads
3. Lunchita-kesa, "hair-pluckers," is one of the nicknames given tothe Swetambaras, "clad in white," a sect of the Jainas (Colebrooke,work quoted, p. 551).
4. "A householder."
Sep 17, 2009
Jainism in Karnataka
By nkgrock
Jainism has been a small, but one of the most influential religious tradition in India. It has been a major cultural, philosophical, social, and political force since dawn of civilization in India. Jainism is often referred to as Jain Dharma or Shraman Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha by ancient texts. It is one of the oldest Shramana traditions, that is Ascetic tradition still surviving in India. Today, with 4 million population (2001 census), Jains are spread throughout India. They are present prominently in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Karnataka, Madya Pradesh and Bundelkhand have considerable population of Jains.
The beginning of Jainism in Karnataka has been a matter of speculation. Legend has it that Mahavira visited Karnataka and initiated King Jivandhara of Hemanagada country of the Kuntala (Karnataka) region and this probably accounts for the early beginnings of Jainism in Karnataka.
The advent of Jainism in Karnataka is assigned to 4th century BC by a well-known Jaina tradition. It states that, Badrabhahu, of the line of pontiffs started by Mahavira and his royal disciple Chandragupta Maurya, migrated to South along with many followers due to famine in north and settled in Shravana-Belagola and breath their last in Chandragiri, by Sallekhana(Death by Fasting).
Chandragupta Basadi at Shravana-Belagola though a latter day structure, bears its connections with the tradition. But, unfortunately no epigraphic or literary evidence is available to corroborate this Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta tradition. The first mention of this tradition is found in Shravana-Belagola epigraph of 7th century. “Brhatkhosha” of Harisena of 931 AD also mentions of this tradition. Narasimhachar, who has examined the sources in detail, believes that, this tradition has some basis to stand.(1)
Historically, Jainism received huge patronage at hands of Karnataka Kings, royal families, merchants and even common men. Large number of monuments present throughout the state is the visible examples of Jain influence. A large number of epigraphical references also exist mentioning about patronage and grants received from Kings and Queens to Jain faith. Apart from this, contribution of Jains for Kannada literature too is immense.
Political position of Jainism under Karnataka Kings:
Beginning from time of Kadambas of Banavasi, until Vijayanagara period, Jainism received generous grants from Kannada monarchs.
Kadambas of Banavasi (345-525CE): The earliest grant from Kadambas comes from the time of Mrigesavarman(his fourth regnal year)(2). The copper plate mentions the grant of an entire village for the benefits of Jain Gods (Bhagavat, Arhat and Mahajinendra). He also gave thirty-three Nivartanas of land (in modern Halsi in Belguam) to Yapaniyas (Jainas) (3). The same copper plate also states that, Jaina ascetics must be fed during rainy seasons. Kadambas have to their credit of inaugurating the tradition of grants to Jainas.
The Gangas of Talkad (350-1000 CE): Tradition connects origin of Gangas to a Jaina teacher Simhanandi. Shripurusha gave Devanahalli grant to Jinalaya and Narasimharajapura grant to a Jaina Caityalaya.(4) Prithvipati Ist’s Billur grant records the gift of twelve villages on the banks of Lakshmanathirtha to Satyavakya Jinaalaya at Pannekadanga.(5)
There are many inscriptions showing huge grants made by Rachamalla IV, and his minister Chavundaraaya.
Chalukyas of Badami(6th century): In spite of being staunch Hindus, they extended patronage to Jainas. The existence pf a Jaina cave by side of Vaishnava cave at Badami, is the best example of tolerance of Chalukyas. During the period of Kirthivarma II, Kaliyamma built a Jinalaya at Annigeri. (6) Sendraka Durgasakti donated lands to Sankha-Jinalaya at Puligere(7). Vijayaditya gave away village Seribaluru near Laksmeshwar.
The Rashtrakutas(8th century) and Chalukyas of Kalyana(12th century):
Altekar characterizes the age of Rashtrakutas as the most flourishing period in history of Jainism in Deccan. Amoghavarsha I was more a Jaina than a Hindu (8). Many of officers of Rashtrakutas were Jainas. The Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism. Altekar estimates that at least one third of total populations of Deccan during this period were Jainas(9).
Chalukyas of Kalyana patronized all religions. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty was patron of great poet Ranna(who was a Jaina). Satyashraya has a Jaina teacher as Rajguru. Attimabbe constructed many basadis. King gave golden Kalasha to one such basadi at Lokkigundi (10). Shantinatha, a minister of Someshwara II built Mallikamoda Shantinatha basadi at Baligrama (11)
The Hoysalas(10th-14th century): Hoysalas are traditionally connected with Jainism since origin. Sala, himself was a Jain. Ereyanga is said to have made many grants at Belagola. Vinayaditya II built large number of Jaina shrines. According to Belur inscription, Vishnuvardhana received prasadam of God Vijaya Parshwa from Jinalaya and made provision for performance of ceromonies of Vijaya Parshwa and 24 Thirthankaras. His wife Shantaladevi is described as jewel of Jainism (12). Many of his generals including Mariyane Dandanayaka, Punisa and Boppa were all Jains. These disprove the allegation that Vishnuvardhana after his conversion to Vaishnavism ignored Jainas. Narasimha I though a Vaishnavite made grants to Sravanabelagola. Ballala II built Nagara Jinalaya at Dorasamudra. Patronage to Jainism continued in the days of Narasimha and Ramanatha.
Vijayanagara Period (1336-1646 CE): With establishment of Vijayanagara kingdom, emphasis was more on Hinduism and Jainism received great setback. Yet, Jainas received some grants. Harihara II patronized Jaina ministers. He also constructed Kuntha Jinaalaya at Vijayanagara (13). Shravanabelagola inscription of 1442 mentions grants for Gommateshwara.
These show that Jainas enjoyed patronage from Kings and were a dominant political force in Karnataka.
Jainism and Veerashaivism:
A cursory look into the philosophies of Jainas and Veerashaivas (their scriptures, Agamas,mythology etc) shows the commona concepts like Avidya, Acharanga, Karmikamala, Dyana, Paapa-Punya, Doctrines of Karma etc. Veerashaivas use Lingam as external symbol and Jainas wear Upasakasutra as external symbol.
For example, Jinasenacharya declares in Mahapurana- “Ahimsa Paramo Dharmaha, Ahimsa Lakshanam Dharmam”(Ahimsa is highest Dharma, and Ahimsa is indicative of Dharma). Similarly, Basava says in one of his vachanas “Dayavillada Dharmadavudidayya”(No Dharma without Compassion).
Vattakeracharya recommends Himsaviratti(Non-violence), Brahmacharya(celibacy), Amrashavada(good speech), Asteya(non-stealing) in his book Mulachara.
Similarly, Veerashaiva vachanas say “Kala Beda, Kolabeda, Husiya Nudiya beda”(Don’t steal, Don’t kill, Don’t lie).
Further, Jaina concepts of Samyagdharshana, Jnana and Chariya are the Samayagdharshanas of Veerashaivas also. The Veerashaiva Pancha Acharas viz., Shivachara, Gaachara etc agree with Jaina Pancha acharas viz., Darshanachara, Jnanachara etc (14). These illustrate the commonality between different indigenous philosophical streams.
Kannada Literature:
Kannada literature is often classified into Jaina, Vaishnava and Veerashaiva literatures recognizing the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language (15). Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the Jains, who found eager patrons in the Chalukya, Ganga, Rashtrakuta and Hoysala kings (16). Jainas dominated Kannada literature till 12th century.
The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is a Jain text Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya(17).Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature"
Architecture:
Jain contribution to Architecture is immense. The monolith statue of 60 feet, the famous Gomateshwara statue, in Shravanabelagola is the living example of Jain contribution to architecture and scupture. Shravanabelagola, Chandragiri, Indragiri, Moodabidiri, Karkala, Dharmasthala, Venur, Gerosoppa, Hadolli, Bilgi, Lakkundi, are some of the important centers of Jain monuments in Karnataka.
The earliest references to Jaina monuments are found in Halasi and Devagiri inscriptions of Kadamba period. According to Gudnapur inscription Kadamba King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha. Ganga minister and commander Chamundaraya in honour of Lord Bahubali built it. Badami Chalukyas built a cave temple dedicated to Adinatha Thirthankara. Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. Structural temples built by them include-Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole and the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar.
The Jaina monuments of the Rashtrakutas period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmeshwar, Koppal and Bankura, of North Karnataka. The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Jaina temple at Naregal is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka. It was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. Similarly many Jinalayas were built by Kalyani Chalukyas too including Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmeshwar. Chaturmukha basadi, Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis located at Gerusoppa are important jain monuments built During Vijayanagara period.
These show, the enormous contribution of Jainas in every aspect of life of Karnataka people.
References-
1-Epigraphia Carnatica, Sacred Books.
2-Indian Antiquary, Vol. 7, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
3-Ibid,
4-Ibid, Vol. 2, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
5-Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. 1
6-Epigraphia Indica, Vol.32
7-Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
8-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.11
9-Shikripur 136, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
10-Soraba inscriptions.
11-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 9
12-Jainism and Veerashaivism, Dr.G.Marulasiddaiah
13-Narasimhacharya (1934)
14-Sastri (1955)
Jainism has been a small, but one of the most influential religious tradition in India. It has been a major cultural, philosophical, social, and political force since dawn of civilization in India. Jainism is often referred to as Jain Dharma or Shraman Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha by ancient texts. It is one of the oldest Shramana traditions, that is Ascetic tradition still surviving in India. Today, with 4 million population (2001 census), Jains are spread throughout India. They are present prominently in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Karnataka, Madya Pradesh and Bundelkhand have considerable population of Jains.
The beginning of Jainism in Karnataka has been a matter of speculation. Legend has it that Mahavira visited Karnataka and initiated King Jivandhara of Hemanagada country of the Kuntala (Karnataka) region and this probably accounts for the early beginnings of Jainism in Karnataka.
The advent of Jainism in Karnataka is assigned to 4th century BC by a well-known Jaina tradition. It states that, Badrabhahu, of the line of pontiffs started by Mahavira and his royal disciple Chandragupta Maurya, migrated to South along with many followers due to famine in north and settled in Shravana-Belagola and breath their last in Chandragiri, by Sallekhana(Death by Fasting).
Chandragupta Basadi at Shravana-Belagola though a latter day structure, bears its connections with the tradition. But, unfortunately no epigraphic or literary evidence is available to corroborate this Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta tradition. The first mention of this tradition is found in Shravana-Belagola epigraph of 7th century. “Brhatkhosha” of Harisena of 931 AD also mentions of this tradition. Narasimhachar, who has examined the sources in detail, believes that, this tradition has some basis to stand.(1)
Historically, Jainism received huge patronage at hands of Karnataka Kings, royal families, merchants and even common men. Large number of monuments present throughout the state is the visible examples of Jain influence. A large number of epigraphical references also exist mentioning about patronage and grants received from Kings and Queens to Jain faith. Apart from this, contribution of Jains for Kannada literature too is immense.
Political position of Jainism under Karnataka Kings:
Beginning from time of Kadambas of Banavasi, until Vijayanagara period, Jainism received generous grants from Kannada monarchs.
Kadambas of Banavasi (345-525CE): The earliest grant from Kadambas comes from the time of Mrigesavarman(his fourth regnal year)(2). The copper plate mentions the grant of an entire village for the benefits of Jain Gods (Bhagavat, Arhat and Mahajinendra). He also gave thirty-three Nivartanas of land (in modern Halsi in Belguam) to Yapaniyas (Jainas) (3). The same copper plate also states that, Jaina ascetics must be fed during rainy seasons. Kadambas have to their credit of inaugurating the tradition of grants to Jainas.
The Gangas of Talkad (350-1000 CE): Tradition connects origin of Gangas to a Jaina teacher Simhanandi. Shripurusha gave Devanahalli grant to Jinalaya and Narasimharajapura grant to a Jaina Caityalaya.(4) Prithvipati Ist’s Billur grant records the gift of twelve villages on the banks of Lakshmanathirtha to Satyavakya Jinaalaya at Pannekadanga.(5)
There are many inscriptions showing huge grants made by Rachamalla IV, and his minister Chavundaraaya.
Chalukyas of Badami(6th century): In spite of being staunch Hindus, they extended patronage to Jainas. The existence pf a Jaina cave by side of Vaishnava cave at Badami, is the best example of tolerance of Chalukyas. During the period of Kirthivarma II, Kaliyamma built a Jinalaya at Annigeri. (6) Sendraka Durgasakti donated lands to Sankha-Jinalaya at Puligere(7). Vijayaditya gave away village Seribaluru near Laksmeshwar.
The Rashtrakutas(8th century) and Chalukyas of Kalyana(12th century):
Altekar characterizes the age of Rashtrakutas as the most flourishing period in history of Jainism in Deccan. Amoghavarsha I was more a Jaina than a Hindu (8). Many of officers of Rashtrakutas were Jainas. The Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism. Altekar estimates that at least one third of total populations of Deccan during this period were Jainas(9).
Chalukyas of Kalyana patronized all religions. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty was patron of great poet Ranna(who was a Jaina). Satyashraya has a Jaina teacher as Rajguru. Attimabbe constructed many basadis. King gave golden Kalasha to one such basadi at Lokkigundi (10). Shantinatha, a minister of Someshwara II built Mallikamoda Shantinatha basadi at Baligrama (11)
The Hoysalas(10th-14th century): Hoysalas are traditionally connected with Jainism since origin. Sala, himself was a Jain. Ereyanga is said to have made many grants at Belagola. Vinayaditya II built large number of Jaina shrines. According to Belur inscription, Vishnuvardhana received prasadam of God Vijaya Parshwa from Jinalaya and made provision for performance of ceromonies of Vijaya Parshwa and 24 Thirthankaras. His wife Shantaladevi is described as jewel of Jainism (12). Many of his generals including Mariyane Dandanayaka, Punisa and Boppa were all Jains. These disprove the allegation that Vishnuvardhana after his conversion to Vaishnavism ignored Jainas. Narasimha I though a Vaishnavite made grants to Sravanabelagola. Ballala II built Nagara Jinalaya at Dorasamudra. Patronage to Jainism continued in the days of Narasimha and Ramanatha.
Vijayanagara Period (1336-1646 CE): With establishment of Vijayanagara kingdom, emphasis was more on Hinduism and Jainism received great setback. Yet, Jainas received some grants. Harihara II patronized Jaina ministers. He also constructed Kuntha Jinaalaya at Vijayanagara (13). Shravanabelagola inscription of 1442 mentions grants for Gommateshwara.
These show that Jainas enjoyed patronage from Kings and were a dominant political force in Karnataka.
Jainism and Veerashaivism:
A cursory look into the philosophies of Jainas and Veerashaivas (their scriptures, Agamas,mythology etc) shows the commona concepts like Avidya, Acharanga, Karmikamala, Dyana, Paapa-Punya, Doctrines of Karma etc. Veerashaivas use Lingam as external symbol and Jainas wear Upasakasutra as external symbol.
For example, Jinasenacharya declares in Mahapurana- “Ahimsa Paramo Dharmaha, Ahimsa Lakshanam Dharmam”(Ahimsa is highest Dharma, and Ahimsa is indicative of Dharma). Similarly, Basava says in one of his vachanas “Dayavillada Dharmadavudidayya”(No Dharma without Compassion).
Vattakeracharya recommends Himsaviratti(Non-violence), Brahmacharya(celibacy), Amrashavada(good speech), Asteya(non-stealing) in his book Mulachara.
Similarly, Veerashaiva vachanas say “Kala Beda, Kolabeda, Husiya Nudiya beda”(Don’t steal, Don’t kill, Don’t lie).
Further, Jaina concepts of Samyagdharshana, Jnana and Chariya are the Samayagdharshanas of Veerashaivas also. The Veerashaiva Pancha Acharas viz., Shivachara, Gaachara etc agree with Jaina Pancha acharas viz., Darshanachara, Jnanachara etc (14). These illustrate the commonality between different indigenous philosophical streams.
Kannada Literature:
Kannada literature is often classified into Jaina, Vaishnava and Veerashaiva literatures recognizing the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language (15). Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the Jains, who found eager patrons in the Chalukya, Ganga, Rashtrakuta and Hoysala kings (16). Jainas dominated Kannada literature till 12th century.
The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is a Jain text Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya(17).Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature"
Architecture:
Jain contribution to Architecture is immense. The monolith statue of 60 feet, the famous Gomateshwara statue, in Shravanabelagola is the living example of Jain contribution to architecture and scupture. Shravanabelagola, Chandragiri, Indragiri, Moodabidiri, Karkala, Dharmasthala, Venur, Gerosoppa, Hadolli, Bilgi, Lakkundi, are some of the important centers of Jain monuments in Karnataka.
The earliest references to Jaina monuments are found in Halasi and Devagiri inscriptions of Kadamba period. According to Gudnapur inscription Kadamba King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha. Ganga minister and commander Chamundaraya in honour of Lord Bahubali built it. Badami Chalukyas built a cave temple dedicated to Adinatha Thirthankara. Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. Structural temples built by them include-Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole and the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar.
The Jaina monuments of the Rashtrakutas period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmeshwar, Koppal and Bankura, of North Karnataka. The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Jaina temple at Naregal is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka. It was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. Similarly many Jinalayas were built by Kalyani Chalukyas too including Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmeshwar. Chaturmukha basadi, Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis located at Gerusoppa are important jain monuments built During Vijayanagara period.
These show, the enormous contribution of Jainas in every aspect of life of Karnataka people.
References-
1-Epigraphia Carnatica, Sacred Books.
2-Indian Antiquary, Vol. 7, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
3-Ibid,
4-Ibid, Vol. 2, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
5-Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. 1
6-Epigraphia Indica, Vol.32
7-Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
8-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.11
9-Shikripur 136, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
10-Soraba inscriptions.
11-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 9
12-Jainism and Veerashaivism, Dr.G.Marulasiddaiah
13-Narasimhacharya (1934)
14-Sastri (1955)
Feb 18, 2008
A Brief History of Jainism
Compiled and edited by Dr. Tansukh J. Salgia, founding member and past President (1985-1989) of Federation of Jain Association in North America
Jainism is the religion professed by the Jains, so called because they follow the path practiced and preached by the Jinas. The term is an English rendering of the original Jaina-dharma or Jina -dharma. German Jainologists, like, Leumann, Winternitz and Schubring, prefer the form Jainsmus or Jinism, which they consider to be the etymologically correct rendering. Both the forms are, however, correct, Jainism meaning the religion of the Jains and Jinism that of the Jina, although the former is more popular and in current use both in literature and common parlance.
Jainism is an important, fully developed and well-established religious and cultural system, purely indigenous to India. It is the oldest living representative of that ancient Sramana current of Indian culture, which was, in its origin, non-vedic and probably non-Aryan and even pre-Aryan.
Dr. Hermann Jacobi, a German scholar of Eastern religions, and others are also of the opinion that Jainism was related to the ancient philosophy of India, because of certain of its metaphysical conceptions, animistic belief, hero-worship in the form of worship as deities of perfected mortals, and of its being a very simple faith, be it in worship, rituals or morals. It has also been described as "a very original independent and systematic doctrine," of which "the realistic and rationalistic tone does not fail to attract notice of even a casual observer." Moreover, unlike many other indigenous religious sects, Jainism has succeeded in preserving down to the present time its integrity as a separate world religion in the midst of preponderant Hinduism. Dr. Winternitz has very justly observed in his History of Indian Literature, "The Jainas have extended their activities beyond the sphere of their religious literature to a far greater extent than the Buddhists have done, and they have memorable achievements in the secular science to their credit, in philosophy, grammar, lexicography, poetics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even in the science of politics. In one way or other there is always some connection even of these 'profane' works with religion. In Southern India, the Jainas have also rendered services in developing the Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu and especially the Kanarese literary language. They have, besides, written considerable amount in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marwari. Thus we see that they occupy no mean position in the history of Indian literature and Indian thoughts." It is a complete system with all the necessary branches, such as dogma or ontology, metaphysics, philosophy, epistemology, mythology, ethics, ritual, and the rest, and is divided into several sects and subsects indicative of a long process of development. It has its own deities, gurus and scriptures its own temples, places of worship and pilgrimage, and its own festivals and fairs. Besides devotees, it possesses well-organized monastic orders, comprising both male and female ascetics.
The Jaina community, with its unique cultural heritage, has formed from the days of yore an important section of the Indian people and has been drawing adherents from almost all the various races, castes and classes inhabiting the different parts of this ancient country. In theory, Jainism admits of no caste distinctions, but owing to the growing influence of orthodox Hinduism in medieval times, its caste system came to be more or less adopted by the Jainas as well, though still not so rigidly. At present, the bulk of the community is confined to more than two dozen subdivisions of the Vaisya caste, though stray members of the Brahmana, Ksatriya and Sudra castes and of several unidentified caste-groups are also here and there seen professing Jainism. The Jainas have for long abstained from active proselytization and there is no regular Jaina mission working in this direction, yet several Hindus, Muslims and Christians are known to have converted to Jainism in the past hundred years or so.
Since the days of Mahavira and the Buddha (6th century B.C) till the advent of Islam in India (10th century AD), the creed of the Nirgranthas, Jinas or Tirthankaras, that is Jainism, maintained its position as one of the three major religion of the country, the other two being Brahmanism (Hinduism) and Buddhism. Even during this period it lost members and many a time royal patronage and popular support, due to the greater proselytizing of the Buddhist and of the Saiva and Vaisnava sects of Brahmanism, which sometimes look the form of violent religious persecutions. Therefore, it went through a process of decline. A variety of internal and external factors made the community suffer both in influence and numbers, till at the present time it can count a bare eight to ten million souls as its members.
No doubt, they form part of an elite and prosperous section of the Indian middle classes, and are occupied in business, industry, banking, trade and commerce, the different learned professions, services and politics, and are scattered all over the World, residing particularly in all the big towns, capital cities and trade centers.
The percentage of literacy and education is comparatively very high and that of crime very low. They are well known for their philanthropy, charitable institutions and works of public welfare. In the food habit, the Jainas are prefect vegetarians, rather lacto-vegetarians, do not eat meat, fish or egg, nor drink spirituous liquors.
Jains follow in general such trade and vocations as do not involve injury to life, upholding the doctrine of ahimsa as best as they can, and avoid hurting or killing any living being.
The members of the ascetic order, both male and female, are on the whole, saintly, puritanical, selfless, possessionless, and austere in the observance of their vows and the rules of their order. The routine for the monk is very rigorous, and a speedier release is therefore possible. During the rainy season he seeks shelter in a monastery of the order, for then life is more abundant and movement pregnant with danger to it. For the remaining eight months he takes the road and wanders barefoot and bareheaded; he may not sleep in a bed nor take any conveyance, and may have as his only possessions his cloth, bowl, broom, and sacred books-indeed, these are not reckoned his own. He may not touch money; he must drink no wine, light no fire, and take no bath except in pure water. He may not disturb the insects or vermin that neither torment his flesh, nor do anything that may harm even potential life. Thus, Jain monks are expected to walk gently, so as not to crush the living atoms.
The two principal sects are the Digambara (sky-clad) and the Svetambara (white-clad), so-called because the male ascetics of the former in the highest stage go about naked and those of the latter wear scanty, unsewn white cloths. Each of the major sects is further divided into at least three distinct subsects, the Digambara into Terahapantha of Suddhamnaya, the Bisapantha, and the Taranapanth or Samaiya, and the Svetambara into the Samvegi or temple-worshipper, the Sthanakavasi or Sadhumargi and the Teranpanth. The Digambara Terahapantha is so-called because it enjoins strict adherence to the thirteen (teraha) rules of ascetic conduct, and is more puritanical and austere, even in the temple worship. The Bisapantha, on the other hand, is much more elaborate and lax in worship and not so strict even in ascetic discipline. The Samaiya or Taranapantha is a medieval product, does not insist on temple or image worship, and possesses practically no ascetic order. The Samvegis among the Svetamberas are temple worshipers and constitute the majority. The Sthanakavasis, who came into being about the same time as the Digmbara Taranapanthis, in the 15th Century A.D., are like them opposed to image and temple worship and instead emphasize the adoration of ascetic gurus. Buildings reserved for the latter's exclusive stay are called Sthanakas. A later derivation from the Sthanakvasi sect is the Svethambara Terapantha, which differs from the parent creed only in certain ascetic practices and usages. The organization of the order in this subsect is more rigid and unitary, being subject to the dictates of only one man, the Acarya or chief pontiff.
Certain misconceptions about the character, position, genesis, and history of Jainism may be noticed prevailing among even some of those who are supposed to be educated and well informed. Many a non-Jaina pundit, Indian as well non-Indian, may be heard passing, cursorily, remarks like: Jainism is an insignificant, little or an obscure minor sect of the Hindus, or a dissenter from Hinduism, or that it is a derivation from Buddhism. There are others who have failed to comprehend the Jaina philosophy of Anekanta, its Syadvadic mode of predication, the Jaina metaphysics and the theory of karma, or to appreciate the scope and significance of the Jaina doctrine of ahimsa. The cultural contributions of Jainism have not been duly evaluated, nor has the role of Jainism in the context of present day world problems been properly assessed.
Certain seals as old as perhaps five to eight thousand years, belonging to the pre-historic Indus valley civilization and bearing the figures of a nude yogin in the characteristically Jaina kayotsarga posture (perfect bodily abandonment ) along with the bull emblem, as also the nude male harappan torso, seem to point to the prevalence of the worship of Rasabha or Adinath (the First Lord) of Jaina tradition in that remote age. The rise of Vedicism, when the early Vedic hymns collected in the Rgveda were composed belongs to a later period. In a number of hymns of the Rgveda, which is supposed to be the earliest known or available book in the world's library, Rsabha is alluded to directly and indirectly, as is also the case with the other vedas. Beside him, several other Tirthankaras, who succeeded him, find mention in the Vedic literature, and the Brahamanical Puranas have treated Rasabha as an early incarnation of the god Visnu. In the philosophical literature of ancient India, Jainism finds place as an important non-Brahmanical system. The Buddhist literary tradition is no less explicit in indicating the prevalence of Jainism in the time prior to the rise of Buddhism (6th century B.C.)-in fact, the last Tirthankara, Mahavirs, was a senior contemporary of Buddha. Numerous epigraphic records, literary reference monuments and antiquities belonging to subsequent centuries speak eloquently of the important and major role Jainism has played during the last two thousand and five hundred years in the life and culture of the Indian subcontinent.
As regards foreigners, Pythagoras and the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece had certain beliefs and practices in common with the Jains. Alexander the Great is himself said to have come in contact with certain nude Jaina monks. Terms like "gymnosoph," "gymnetai" and "gennoi" used by the Greek writers, beginning with Megasthenes (4th century B.C.) to Hesychois (5th century A.D.), have generally been taken to have referred to the naked Jaina saints of ancient India. The Chinese pilgrims of the 4th to 7th centuries A.D. and the Arab merchants and traders of the 7th to 14th centuries were well acquainted with the Jaina and distinguished them from the followers of Brahmanism and even Buddhism. The European adventurers and travelers of the 15th to 18th centuries do not appear to have noticed the distinction between the two communities, the Hindu and the Jaina, because, looking superficially with the eyes of a stranger from far off countries, there was none. The Muslim chroniclers of medieval times also generally suffer from the same lapse, but not all of them. Abul Fazal Allami's account of Jainism is his Ain-I-Akbari is tolerably full and elaborate for such a work.
Coming to comparatively modern times, Oriental or Indological studies by Western scholars commenced about the beginning of the last quarter of the 18th century. The credit goes to Sir William Jones, Judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, who took the initiative, pioneered the studies and founded the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. The first regular notice of the Jaina appears to be one published by Lieut. Wilfred in the Asiatic Researches in 1799 and the contemporary existence of monuments, literature and adherents of Jainism was first brought to light by Col. Colin Mackenzie and Dr. F. Buchanan Hamilton in 1807, followed by H.T. Colaebrooke's "Observation on the Jaina." This the most eminent Sanskritist of his times, whose personal collections of Sanskrit manuscripts included a fair number of Jaina texts, gave a more or less accurate account of this religion together with a hint that it must be older than Buddhism.
As time went, the Jaina system of religion and culture came to be studied more and more intensively as well as extensively, and its literature, art and architecture, archaeological remains, tenets, practices, history and traditions became subjects of specialized studies. A host of savants worked in the field, most notable among them being Albrecht Weber, Leumann, Rice, Fleet, Guerinot, Wilson, Jacobi, Buhler, Hoernle, Hertel, Burgess, Jarl Charpentier, Vincent Smith, F.W. Thomas, Schugring and Zimmer. It is due to the sincere efforts put in by these orientalists and many others who drew inspiration from them or followed in their footsteps that now Jainology has come to be an important branch of Indology and Oriental studies, and a bibliography on any branch of Indology can hardly do without a reference to Jaina works on the subject, and no account of important religions of the world, or a comparative study of religions, is complete without Jainism included in it. Its independent existence, greater antiquity in relation to not only Buddhism but even Brahmanism, and the wholesome, abiding values inherent in its philosophy, tenets and way of life, with a universal appeal and message of peace and goodwill for all and every one, have become admitted facts.
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