Kamal Basti: A Jain wonder in stone

 By G Nataraja Perumal

Kamal Basti is an ancient Jain temple dating as far back as 1000 AD and situated in the famous Belgaum fort in Karnataka. Built in a typical Chalukya style, it stands testimony to the architectural genius and aesthetic sense of our forefathers. Even after hundreds of years, it still looks fresh; time cannot wither the temple’s old charm. It is a sacred monument made of stones and the stones have willingly yielded to the design and pattern the sculptors had in mind. Otherwise, such a gorgeous structure would not have become reality. Kamal Basti is a marvel and a poetry in stone. The lush green garden around adds to the aura and serenity of the temple all the more.

The front hall, Muga mandapam as it is called, is truly a majestic structure and a masterpiece, to say the least. It is in the form of an inverted lotus with 72 unfolded petals and hence the name Kamal Basti. Each petal, the Jains believe, represents a Tirthankara. Those in the know of things may question the number of Tirthankaras. The Jains have got a poetic explanation. They say there were, are and ever will be 24 Tirthankaras and hence the total no of petals (24X3=72) add up to 72—philosophically sounds well. The walls of the temple are engraved with intricate designs, borders and sculptures, which are breathtakingly beautiful. Hundreds of minuscule statues of Vinayak have been woven into the labyrinth of rocks; artisans also figure alongside. Inscriptions, as concrete evidence of history, are also there. The pillars supporting the structure are so shiny and shapely that one cannot resist the temptation of touching them to get a feel of the texture. They reflect things that are at a distance from them—truly, a mirror in stone!

The front hall leads one to the prayer hall, where tranquillity reigns supreme. The hall is full of ethereal, spiritual and transcendental vibrations. The devotees are in deep meditation. In the prayer hall, one could find statues of Jain monks of high order like Adinath, the first Tirthankara, sitting in Padmasan and Bhagwan Sumatinath standing with finely formed eyelids gently closed. Bhagwan Parshwanath is seated under the shade of seven-hooded Nagaraj. The statues are naked but the nakedness of monks, as that of babies, have only purity, innocence and sacredness to reveal.

This is the only Jain temple in the whole world, where there are statues of Nava Grahas—carved in monolithic stone—that are represented by nine Tirthankaras. It is believed that the Jains of the bygone centuries might have faith in planetary influence over human affairs.

In fact, Kamal Basti has more surprises. Past the prayer hall is installed the idol of Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankara—found out at a later date but prominence has been given to Him. The statue of Neminath, who renounced his very kingdom to become a monk, is quite captivating and divine-inducing; he is seated on a highly decorated pedestal, worthy of his spiritual eminence. This part of the temple is equivalent to the sanctum sanctorum, where daily worship takes place. Much peace and contentment comes to one’s heart, as one bows one’s head before these monks, famed for their compassion, non-violence and absolute faith in vegetarianism and universal brotherhood. Apart from Jainalaya, within the fort are temples of Durga and Shiva, and mosques which emphasises the unity, integrity, oneness and harmony of all religions. For those visiting Belgaum, Kamal Basti is a must see.

At present, the whole temple is under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India.

- Indian Express 7th April 2013

Jain Art and Architecture Photographs

List of Photographs

First Marathi Inscription Photograph

Chttorgarh Jain Temple with Kirti Stambh

Kamal Basadi: Jain Temple in Belgaum Fort

Jain Statues in Gwalior Fort

Jain Temple inside Gwalior Fort

Ranakpur Jain Temple

The Mandagapattu cave temple

The writing on the cave

By Lakshmi Sharath

The Mandagapattu cave temple is a treasure-trove of early Pallava art

A small rusty board brings our car to a sudden halt. Surrounding us are lush paddy fields with massive boulders in the backdrop. A lone woman works on her crop, as we cut through the thorny bushes and walk across the fields. We meet a huge hill with boulders stacked precariously.

The hill seems to open out to us, as we walk through the narrow opening to reach our destination — the cave temple at Mandagapattu carved out of a 100-foot hillock.

“Welcome to Pallava cave hunting” says Vijay Kumar, who had initiated me into the world of Pallava and Chola temples through his website www.poetryinstone.in. At Mandagapattu, I realise I'm already lost in the world of stone.

A flight of steps leads us to the cave temple, carved for the trinity, and flanked by the door guardians or dwarapalakas. The shrines are empty. “This is the first prototype of the Pallava rock-cut cave temple, built by Mahendravarman I in the 7th Century,” says Vijay.

To me, Pallava architecture has always been synonymous with Mamallapuram or Kadal Mallai, as it was originally called.

Built by Narasimhavarman I or Mamalla, the rock-cut cave temples here, I am told, owe their inspiration to Mahendravarman's cave shrines strewn around Ginjee, Tindivanam, Kancheepuram, Arakonam and Chengalpet, among others.

“The early Pallava style has bulky pillars, not too many embellishments even in the form of relief sculptures, and the depiction of the door guardians is not too bold. Later, the architecture became more evolved as they moved towards building structural temples,” explains Vijay.

Our companion Arvind shows us a Sanskrit inscription where Mahendravarman declares that he is not building the temple from any perishable material — brick, wood, metal and limestone or stucco. “That is why he is called Vichitrachitha, an innovator in many ways,” he explains. The temple, in the inscription, is referred to as Lakshita Yathaanam.

“Mahendravarman showed leanings towards Jainism before he gravitated towards Hinduism — which is probably why one finds Jain settlements near his cave temples,” adds Vijay.

We are at Thalavanur, close to Mandagapattu, where the temple, Shatrumalleswaram, is carved at the edge of another hillock, overlooking boulders. The temple houses door guardians flanking a linga. “Note the advancement in art here,” mentions Vijay, “as we take in the makartoranas in the front façade.” A small flight of rock-cut steps carved on the hill takes us to the shelters of Jain monks who probably meditated and rested there.

An old man walks up to us from across the fields and proclaims he is the caretaker. A stray dog follows him, his howls echoing through the hills, as we retrace our steps.

Article Courtasy: The Hindu

Conservation of Jain Monuments

BY MR. SUBHASH JAIN


The known history of India is a few thousand years old. During this long time span several religions and their philosophical thoughts have emerged. After having depth realisation of their irrespective philosophy, the ace religious leaders, preachers and philosophers have Provo gated among the masses the best of their principles for their spiritual and general well being.

It is interesting that the main doctrines of all the religions are similar in spirit but their followers have made their own interpretation according to their convenience, which have created gulf in religious though and thereby the aversion.

However, the great persons of all the religions have targeted upon spiritual and moral uplift of man. The religions have become strong medium of common harmony among the followers of the same faith, whereas the different interpretations have carried the followers of one faith distantly from the others.

Whatever may be religious differences in propagation of philosophical thoughts, for transformation into action, the man's desire to create the magnificent and memorable monuments has been alike. Such monuments attract the people of all faiths and that is why, the places of touristic importance having much attractive monuments invite the tourists from world over.

Whereas the affluent nations have the resources to protect and maintain their monuments on national level and increase their touristic importance more and more by publicity, renovation and keep, the poor nations face the misfortune of gradual deterioration of even the national importance monuments in the absence of adequate funds to maintain and protect those.
Jain religion is an oldest living religion. Its antiquity is yet undecided. The Jains believe their religion as eternal whereas the historians feel the absence of the proof. However, the existence of many monuments of pre-Christian era compels them to accept the comparative antiquity of Jain religion.

The Jain monuments, small and large, old and new, have been built in almost all parts of India. Though the Jains are decidedly a richer community of the country, but their apathy towards maintenance of all the monuments of antiquity is agonising.

All the 24 Jain Trithankaras, according to the Jains, were born in the royal, Ksatriya families. Their influence on the common masses, both by heredity and their great renunciation, was immense. Their followers, who mostly belonged to the trading community, effected various types of structures to keep the memory of their 'Istdev' everlasting. That is why the Jain monuments, throughout the length and width of the country abound in number.

All matter has certain life; decay is a natural phenomena. But it is the man's effort which can put the decay to a later period, i.e. increase the life of the monument.

It is pity that the apathy of the Jain community towards their old monuments still exists, though lesser in degree. The last two decades have seen a substantial urge in the Government and the elite people for protecting their monuments within the limits of their resources.

The fact remains that most of the old monuments of the Jains in the country, are still lacking funds through their managing committees, philanthropists and governments. To over come the grim situation and to advance further in the protection of the crumbling monuments. I have certain points to suggest:-

1. There should be a total survey of all the Jains monuments in the country by an expert team of Achaelogists, who should grade the monuments according to their present condition, viz;

(i) Which are in imminent danger of falling because of much antiquity, weather effects or public damage. This type of monuments should receive the highest attention for their renovation and proper maintenance and to save those from further. damage.

(ii) Those monuments, the decay in which is in middle stage, such monuments also need renovation as early as possible.

(iii) Those monuments where the process of deterioration has started.In the case of such monuments even minor renovation can enhance their life and the structural attraction.
Bihar and Karnataka have been the oldest seats of the Jains, according to the historians. The result has been that these two states have the oldest Jain monuments. The characteristic of the monuments of the southern region is that being carved out of comparatively harder stone, they are still in better condition, with the expectation of few, which are directly exposed to wet air and where the deterioration is there by more prominent.

The monuments in other states of India, particularly in Gyaraspur region of Madhya Pradesh and at many sites in Rajasthan are special more degraded, because of direct exposure to vagaries of weather, long neglect and constant public damage.

It is awaful that the massive 'Mahadevi' temple in Gyaraspur which can be rightly said the konark type temple and which will involve a cost of atleast several rores of rupees, if built now, is seeing its worst days, because of absolute neglect, both of the local people and the affluent Jain society. The government too has not shown any inertest in this magnificent temple, which has a fine and delicate latice work.

Several Jain icons in the temple in the standing posture are sixteen feet or above in height. The roofs of the temple are in precarious condition. Similar is the fate of a small but old Jain temple by the name of 'VAJRAMATH' standing on the road side. Several temples made of small bricks have the broken roofs. All these deserve the Jain community's priority concern.

Not only this, but many of the old Jain sites in the country have similar tale to tell.

The largest treasure of Jain icons at 'Deograh'. 'Chanderi', 'Ahar' etc. are in no way being kept well. Even most of the beautiful images which these treasure houses have, are facing neglect and are without proper display to exhibit the fine and delicate art of sculpturing .

Whereas the affluent Jains spend huge amounts on construction of new temples and holding 'panch Kalyanak Partisthas at very high expense, it is their primary duty to first protect, fully renovate and maintain their degraded structures in the country.


Article From 'Sixth World Jain Conference' ( 1995) Souvenir

JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ANDHRA

Dr. I. K. Sharma


The Jainological studies in respect of Andhradesa have not been comprehensive. Except casual references in P.B. Desai's work, Jainism in South India, and some Jaina Epigraphs, (Sholapur, 1957) and stray notices in A. Ghosh, (ED) Jaina Art and Architecture, Bharatiya Jnanapith (New Delhi, 1975), Vols. I to III; practically no work has appeared on Jaina art and architecture in so far Andhra is concerned. This being so (Late) S. Gopala Krishna Murthy has brought out a work entitled Jaina Vestiges in Andhra in the year 1963 published by Department of Archaeology, Government of Andhra Pradesh. But this work does not specifically deal with the development Of Jaina art and architecture, but provides an interesting narrative on many sites with scattered sculptures of this faith. However, mention should be made of on account of literary sources compiled by (late) Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma entitled "Jainamatamu" - Telugu Encyclopaedia, Vol. III, (1959), pp. 544-553.

The work of Appayarya, a poet in the Court of Prataparudradeva (1295-1328 A. D.) of the Kakatiya dynasty goes by the name Jinendra Kalyanabhyudayam.l Kalyana here means festivity of worship or jubilation pertaining to Jaina cult. Another work is Padmakavi's Jainendrapuranam.

I. BACKGROUNDIt is held generally that Jaina migration took place from North and Vardhamana Mahavira organised the first Jaina community, the Mu/asangha, its eleven disciples who were named Ganadharas. Ganas are groups of Jains who caused the expansion of Jaina philosopy. Out of these, three were well known and regarded as Kevalis. They were Gautama, Jambu Swami and Arya Sudharma. They in turn had disciples who were known as Sruta Kevalis who were five - Vishnu, Nandimitra, Aparajita, Govardhana, Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu. Bhadrabahu, the last Sruta keuali was a contemporary of Chandra Gupta Maurya (315 B.C.) The traditional association of Bhadrabahu with Sravana (Mana) Belgola, its hold as a centre of Digambara Jainism in Deccan has been well known. Subsequently, the great Kundakundacharya, who was regarded as the founder of this Mulasamgha, and his lineage Kundanvaya appears to have made Sravanabelgola a sacred resort of Jains from all over the country. His first name was Padmanandl and since he hailed from the village Kundakunda, he got the name Kundakundacarya subsequently. The various theories regarding the location of the village, date of this acarya, his proper name and suffix have been re-examined recently by A.V. Narasimha Murthy but still no sound explanation is forthcoming. The mulasamgha branched off into four upa-samghas viz., Nandi, Sena, Deva and Simha and each subdivided into ganas and in turn contained several gacchas. All these owed to the mulasamgha for the religious guidance.
Inspite of the fairly reliable traditional accounts attesting an early spread of Jains to Sravanabelgola,it is surprisisngthat .no vestiges are3 available there or even in Deccan for that matter which could be pushed back to Mauryan or post Mauryan times; while correspondingly on the sbuth-east coastal strip, more surer evidencdes, like the early Brahmi records over simple rock caverns and brds are available at such noteworthy sites as Sittannavasal (Pudukkottai), Arittapatti and Tirupparankunram in district Madurai (Tamilnadu). It is interesting to note that one of the early settlements in the Sangam period, (3rd to 5th century A. D.), Tiruppadirippuliyur was called 'Pataliputra' in the coastal part of South Arcot between Cuddalore and Chidambaram. In the Kannada country till date not a single rock-cut Jaina cavern attributable to a pre-Christian era was reported nor any Jain vestiges have been known prior to 5th century A. D. It appears Digambara Jainism did not reach Tamilnadu from' Sravanabelgola centre but through Orissa-coastal Andhra route in early centuries B. C.

We learn from Mulacara and Pravachanasara, which were composed during the early centuries of the Christian era, that permanent habitation for the Jaina ascetics at a place is forbidden. Mulacara ordains the monks to stay in a deserted house, under a tree or burial ground or in natural caves. So the varshavasa of the Jains were mostly natual rock shelters or the way-side hills and forest areas. Therefore, not many vestiges could be assigned to this faith in specific terms.

II. JAINA TENETS:Digambara Jainism has kept up strict ascetic codes and the ritual observances continued unaltered inspite of the tremendous growth in the activities of Jaina Sangha in South India. Ascetic life lends purity, uniqueness and unsullied fame to Jainism among Indian religions. Jaina scriptures lay three modes of Sallekhana, that is voluntary starvation, standing motionless till death. Vardhamana, known as Nathaputra, (son of Natha clan of Kshatriyas) added to the Jaina Chaturyama, dharma, (Ahimsa, Brahmacharya, Truth and Non­stealing), the fifth one Aparigriha (non-possession) thereby to complete victory over desire. Thus a Jina or Kevali should practice and attain three basic means of liberation Samyakdarsana, Samyakjnana, and Samyakcharita.

III. SOME TRACES OF EARLY JAINISM IN ANDHRAThere are no authentic evidences of premedieval Jaina remains in Andhra. According to Jaina traditional accounts, Mahavira is reported to have visited Kalinga country. Hathigumpha Prasasti refers to the episode of kind Nadaraja of Magadha who took away the figure (Agajinam) to his capital. King Kharavela (2nd cent B. C) restored it back to the basadi at Kumaragiri near Bhuvaneshavare in Orissa and caused in his 13th regnal year caves and resorts at (Udayagiri / Khandagiri ) for Sramanas. Maharaja Kharavele appears to have made a dent into coastal Andhara too during his 11th regnal year and captured the coastal market town of Pithunda, which was an ancient metropolis designated by Ptolemy as the capital of Maisoloi5 (Machilipatnam). Seafaring merchants are stated to be travelling by boat from Champa (Kampuchea) to Pihumda even in the days of Mahavira.. King Kharavela also speaks of a Confedaracy of Tamil countries with whom he fought and defeated. So early Jaina impact could have been the result of Kharavela's expeditions along the South East Coast.

When exactly Jainism spread to coastal Andhra? How it reached? are the questions that defy a clear answer. We have made a reference to a major centre of Jainism in Karnataka. Its influence over the entire south India is well documented. The acharyas belonging to the mulasangha reached far and wide. This could be through Cuddapah ­(Gangaperuru, Danavulapadu)6 Badvel route to Nellore in the coatstal strip. Queen Ayyana . Mahadevi, wife of Kubja Vishnuvardhana Maharaja (A. D. 624-41), the eastern Chalukyan monarch, gifted the village named Musinikonda to Nidumba basadi at Bezawada. In coastal Andhra, this is the first Jaina establishment, perhaps a cave or an open rock shelter caused originally by Ayyana Mahaddevi probably located in the Mallikarjuna hill, which has been subjected to total modernisation and almost all historical monuments have been destroyed in recent years. Later on Vishnuvardhana-III (A. D.718-755), had restored the gifts given to this very Jaina temple for the regular worship of Arahats. The Eastern Chalukyan rulers Gunaga Vijayaditya (849-893 A. D.) and later on Amma-II (945-970 A. D.) have patronised Jainism on a large scale. The Bezwada basadi had monks from far off Surashtra and it appears the early Chalukyan rulers of Andhra had exchanges with the Jaina centres of North - Mathura and Western India as well, besides the major Sravanabelgola the Jain Principle centre of Karnataka.

IV. VADDAMANU, DISTRICT GUNTURVaddamanu is a small village in district Guntur 34 Km. from Guntur on Amaravati road and 10 Km south east of Amaravati, the famous Buddhist site of world renown. The highest hill called Peddakonda has yielded several remains and relics associated with stupas and monasteries as a result of extensive excavations during the years 1981-85. The view that these structures datable to early centuries B.C. are of Jaina affiliation sprang up mainly from the place named Vaddamanu taken to be Vardhamana by the excavators of the site. In fact the name is also held as Vadlamanu due to its rich paddy (Vadlu) fields on the banks of Krishna. There is no doubt that bouldered Stupa at the summit of the hill, and rock caverns, are of the early date associated with N.B.P. and Punch-marked silver coins revealing the Magadhan influence. But to align these structures of early centuries B.C. to Jaina faith is not borne by any evidence except some short label inscriptions noticed (13-on stone and 214 on pottery) on the sculptured­architectural members, pots, bowls used by the inmates of the monastic units located here. It may, at the outset, be- noted that in ancient India, monasteries were resorts of-moving monks, be they Jain, (Nirgranthas), Buddhist or of Brahmanical faith.
Having taken for granted that Vaddamanu is Vardhamana, and hence a Jain Kshetra scholars attempted to dovetail the literary references from Brihat Kalpa Sutra which refers to king Samprati, a patroniser of Jainism, who made his influence felth in Andhra and is as old as Mahavira. T.V.G. Sastry8 and Mrs. Kasturi Bai9 who have published several inscriptions from this place have repeatedly connected some of these short label records to Jaina acharyas, ganas and sanghas of early centuries B. C. and A. D.

I would like to state that these shorter inscriptions, and a few somewhat longer are merely the names of the monks like Ara - taken for Aranathaj asari (da) am: arhata, (VDM, 620), Uttarudhal0 Gadodasa, and Utaradas, etc. Sanghasll like Ukkasa, Nagara, Gavanti Sangha of Gayanasakha; Kulas like Nandige, Pratiga; names like Vadhama (564/1), Maha (564/2), Veera (617/2), Vadhamana Pavate (567/6), Risabo (567/6), Nemi (573/14) have all been taken to be the names of Jaina Tirthan-karas and places. Somewhat lengthy record on a harmika slab which is incomplete reads, "Vadhamana nivasikasa Dhanumitisa Samatukasa Pithuka sa Bhatukasa Chu/a Dhanutikasa ku (mar and Sastry links up this Dhanumita, resident of Vadhamanu to a Dhamati of an inscription from Mathura who is cited as an inhabitant of Punyavardhanal2. This is apparently a very imaginative linkage without basis. Punyavardhana is a place closer to Mathura and several such pious places exist in Ganga­Yamuna doab. It is again interesting for us to note that some references like Jinanevihara, Parivara Sameta (569/4); Samprati Vihare Vadhamanu Pavatake{567/8); {Bhikshukasa}, Pithuda pura nivasikasa; Bhokavadhana pava (te); antevasa (566/9) Varanasa pati (618/4), Nepano Gamanidana (574/8); merely refer to frequent visit of monks from various places to this hill monastery and not that the monastery is aligned to exclusively Jains. Terms like Jina, arhata apply both for the followers of Buddhism as well as Jainism. There is no question of building of Stupas and monasteries in early Jainism and the Stupa of Kankalitila, Mathura, came to existence only during the Kushan period. The monastic life of Jainas has never been in permanent structures, they have dwelt merely in open resorts, way ward Rock shelters for the rainy season (Varshavasa). The monasteries, both Rock cut-in caves, halls, as well as structural viharas were not necessarily for a particular sectarian but meant for nanadesis belonging to various faiths. In the light of what has been stated above, we are of the view that Vaddamanu has no exclusive Jaina art and architectural relics. On the other hand from recently edited copper plate grants issued by Prithivi Mula Raja discovered from Kondavidu Fort (Guntur dt.), the existence of an Aryabhikshu Sangha at Vardhamani-mahavihara established by the Maha Meghavahana confirms that Vaddamanu was a flourishing Buddhist centre with several bhikshu Sanghas right upto 5th century A. D. enjoying royal patronage. In fact Digambara Jainism in early centuries B. C. or A. D. (before the advent of Mulasangha of Sravanabelgola), has no base in Andhra. Dynasties like Pallava, Chalukya, Nolamba, Rashtrakuta, Chola and Kakatiya, no doubt patronised Jainism in Andhra after this Sravanabelgola impact, wave after wave. The rock caverns reported in the Coastal Tamilnadu were only transient shelters and early Jaina monachism did not permit permanent residences to its ascetics and this holds good in respect of Andhra too.

IV. LATER HISTORICAL SITES:The Kalyani Chalukya, Kakatiya and the Velanati Chola rule witnessed asfairly large concentration of Jaina architectural establishments. The square Sikhara over a plain stepped pyramidal tower, and Trikutas involving Triple shrines on plan with a front pillared mandapa are frequently seen as Vardhamana pura, Pragatur while single towered temples are at Kambaduru. Peddatumbalam, etc. But there has not been many rock cut ventures and hardly we get any pillarad caves as in the Brahmanical and Buddhist estasblishments. The extact examples known to us from Ramatirtham (Dt. Vigaz) Siddulayyakonda (Dt.Nellore), Hanumankonda (Dt. Warangal) and Chippagiri are merely shelters under the cover of huge granite boulders and the ledges. These rock caverns are of the times of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas to begin with and continued by their successors like the later Chalukya and Kakatiya dynasties. Carved middle size or miniature temple models of various types found in Vemulavada, Padmakshi, and Vijayawada give us an idea of the Jaina temple styles. These models closely recall the early Chalukyan monolithic temples found at Mahanandi, Satyavolu, Kadamara Kaluva, Alampur, etc. These are usually Chaumukhas or Chauvisis intended for four or twenty four Tirthankaras.

Bhima Saiki younger brother of Chalukya, Vijayaditya-II of Vengi (806-846 A.D.) was given protection by the Rashtrakuta Gonvinda-III, who placed him near Hanumakonda in early 9th century A. D. Saiki favoured Jainas who first established a colony in the Fort, a Durga Tank and rock shelters in the bouldered hills.

During the Kakatiya times Jainism has come to the fore as the early members of the dynasty adopted Jasinism.

Bodhan (Dr. Niamabad )Known anciently as Paudanyapura during the Rashtrakuta rule. this place has become a Jaina centre. A place of Gommata, it served as a capital of Rashtrakuta king Nityavarsha Indra (915-927 A. D.) The Jaina image is known as Kukkutesvara. In Andhra, the figure of Gommata is rarely seen. In Pithapuram, a Gommata is found which is called Kukkutesvara - as Kukkuta sarpas surround him.15 The Vaisyas in Andhra are called Komatis (a native Telugu word) being followers of Gomatha. They are traders by profession and followers of Jainism.

Vemulavada: (Karimnagar district).Arikesari-II (930-955) ruled at Vemulavada. The Kannada poet Pampa,16 the author of Adipurana, originally from Vengimandala, joined the court of Arikesari being a Jaina. A big Jaina temple named as Subhadhama Jinalaya was raised. Arikesari-III donated a village (A.D. 966) to the Jaina pontif Somadeva Suri, who belonged to the Gaula Sangha of North Indian origin. Interestingly this gift was to cause maintenance like white washing. daily offerings, and worship - "Khandasphutita nava Sudhakarma, Bali, naivedyartham". It is therefore, clear that the Brahmanical ritual modes were adopted in toto, though Tirthankaras in Jainism were certainly not Gods. Though the temple got ruined we still see the Paravsnatha image of red sandstone erected in the present Raja Rajesvaralaya. Several other Tirthankara figures are found scattered in various temples here. (five Pasrsvanatha, three Vardhamanas, Suparsvanatha, a Gommata, and four others). Vemulavada was undoubtedly a big Jaina centre in Telangana.

The literary works like Yasastilaka by Somadeva and Adipurana by Pampa speak of the pre-eminence of Jainism in Telangana. The Sanigram inscription of Beta-I reveals the gift to Yuddhamatta Jinalaya. Beta-II also patronised Jaina-basadis.

The Padmakshi temple inscription of the times of Prola­III (1117 A. D.) records the construction of Kadalalaya basadi. The Garuda banner of Pratapa Rudra is regarded by some scholars as the lanchana of Santinatha, the 16th Tirthankara. Ekasila was a Jaina resort. Several Jaina images were found in the Fort area. The Vardhamana (P1.1), Parsvanatha (P1.2), model shrine with Tirthankaras in niches (P1.3), all of back basalt are typically Kakatiyan. Padmakshi temple on Hanumakonda hill was continuously patronised. The steep narrow path is an arduous are a but ascetic Jains chose such places only. The Jaina basdi here enjoyed perpetual grants during the time of Pratapa Rudra17 who held all the Samayas (faiths) in equal esteem.

The Kadalalaya basadi or Padmakshi temple is built on a large rocky out crop. The rick built Sikhara and ardhamandapa, no doubt impressive ones, are later constructions. The sanctum is formed by a natural cavern and with a closed Cella all facing north. Seated Pasrsvanatha on lotus and a royal lady holding up an umbrella and a chief ten by the side are often taken as Mailama and her husband (P1.4). The standing Tirthankara in Kayotsarga with a seated Yaksha - Yakshini were carvings in bold relief on the left boulder closer to garbhagriha (P1.5). Significantly among the several Jaina figure carvings, a book­rest (Vyasapitha) is shown. Hanumakonda hill was a place of learning, like Sravanabelgola.

There are numerous rock carvings on the Hill at the northern boundary of the Fort and recall the rock shelters of Vallimalai and Siyamangalam in Tamilnadu.

The row of Tirthankaras (P1.6) in niches on the north face afford a grand look for their oval forms and superior workmanship on hard trap. Parsvanatha, Yakshi Padmavati, a sitting Tirthanakara in neatly cut niches are examples arising out of later Ganga-Rashtrakuta influence.18

Kollipaka: Jaina temple was built by Kumara Tailapa. The Purnaghata on the door jambs of stone, mana stambhas, carvings of Adinatha, Padmavati and the high stone torana are fine specimens.

The Raja Raja Jinalaya was built during the time of Anantavarman 1187 A.D. The metre high Parsvanatha is very impressive. The Jaina temple at Chippagiri ( on the hill), comprises of a garbhagriha, ardhamandapa and maha. mantapa, and a mukha mandapa. The Navranga has Kakshasana all around interiorly as in the Kakatiya or later Chalukyan period.

Ramathirtham,(Vizag): There are two caves or open shelters under a huge live rock. The way is rough. On the Gurubhakta hill at a distance of one Km. we find a natural cave sheltering a Jain figure (PI.7). Vimaladitya's guru Trikalayogi Siddhantadeva who belonged to desigana visited Durgamkonda. This Jaina monk is shown in relief on the rock and three more figures Chandraprabha (PI. 7 A). Parsvanatha, and Chandraprabha (PI. 7B, C) out of local khondolite resemble the Rashtrakuta examples. Chandavolu, capital of Velanati Chola's(12-13th century A.D.) has also several Jaina figures.

Kanchumurru, (West Godavari) was a rendezvous of Jains during the time of Ammaraja-II. A lady named Chamekamba pupil of Acharya Arhanandi, raised a temple called Sarvalokasraya Jinabhuvana.19

Penukonda in West Godavari has a Parsvanatha, which is a renowned place of learning. Jina bhushana Bhattaraka one of the Chaturdasa Vidyasthanas of Jains (PI.8). Aryavatam in East Godavari district, near Draksharama has a Jainapadu. The Vardhamana image of grey granite from here is of an early period and has the aureole and the Triple parasol. The chauri bearers and Lions back-to-back make it Simhasana. The facial expression and serene pose in dhyana make this figure pleasant looking. Tirthanakaras existed in the Kakinada town hall compound also. Biccavolu has a fine example of Vardhamana (P1.9) now in Madras Museum. This appears to be a Rashtrakuta - Vengi Chalukya make and falls into the early class of figures, like the Aryavatam example. We are reminded of the similar Jaina sculptures of Ellora.

JAINA TEMPLES IN NELLORE DISTRICT:Nellore is known as Vikrama Simhapuri. According to Boswel.20 Vikrama Simhapura and Mulasthanesvara temples were caused by one Mukkanti (Trinetra) a legendary Pallava king. Nellore and its surroundings revealed several Jaina vestiges.21 which provide a fresh data on the nature, early history and spread of this religion.
1. Parsvanatha Image in the Town Hal I (Pl.10)In the premises of Nellor Progressive Union's (Town Hall) library a relief sculpture of a Jaina Tirthankara is planted in position.
This stone slab measures 1.14 metres length and 63 cm. wide out of black basalt rock. In the central part of the stone is a figure standing erect (samapadas sthanaka), nude in Kayotsarga posture. A seven-hooded snake protects the head of the image which has the Trichatravali, the symbol of royality. Besides the Prabhavali, the tiruvasi torana raised over Kudya-stambhikas was held by makaravyala mukha at the base. At the ends of these pillars are the attendant gods of the Jaina pantheon. Samvara enraged at the severe austerities of Parsvanatha Tirthankara attempts to disturb him from penance. A heavy dowopour of rain and storm was caused resulting in total deluge around the standing Parsvanatha. At this juncture Dharanendra, the Naga king came up from the Patala along with his consort Padmavati to protect the Jina. Dharanendra becomes a carytide yaksha and spreads out his hoods on the head of Parsvanatha to ward off the rain, while Padmavati holds up the feet by placing lotus flowers. Thus the Naga couple is depicted here standing either sides with folded hands while the Sankha and Lotus (Padmadala) are up the waters as if emerging to protect the central figure. In the central part are two whisk bearers. The upper loop of the torana is held by a set of elephant riders. Above the festoon is a Gandharva playing the drum.

The above sculpture was reported from the area closer to the Cathedral Church where a stepped tank also existed. This lateritic tank is now taken over by the Fisheries Department which is closer to the former bus stand. The sculpture was however shifted to the premises of the Nellore Town Hall. The stepped tank has still some ancient features preserved. The spot is called Enugulamitta, the tank was the Sarovara for the Parsvanatha temple.

Not only the above find, but another figure of Parsvanatha was noticed in the compound wall of the old bungalow of District Judge in Dargamitta area.22 Though defaced, the image has all the characteristics detailed above (no. 1) with the exception that no elephant riders are shown among the Paribhramana devatas.

Jina Vardhamana (P.11)This impressive image of Vardhamana is presently within the Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari Street, Nellore. Some regard the figure as Mahavishnu and worship it. The image is kept within an iron-bar door on the left side room of the Gopuradvara. This rare specimen is made out of black basalt and highly polished. Seated in Dhyana, the figure is 1.16 metre high with well marked forehead, long nose, distended ears and full neck, throat marked by tri-rekhas, and head with vamavrita curls imparted the look of a peal of custard apple. The radiating face sumptuous and sturdy shoulders and in quite meditative posture, the Vardhamana looks in every sense a Manmadtha Jina. The vahana (mount) is Lion but since the base part is embedded in the earth, this is not visible.
It is reported that originally the above image was within the premises of an old tank (pushkarini) built of lateritic blocks. The large tank was also closed in 1900 when the District Collector's office was raised at the very same place. It appears that during this work was going on, excavation around the sculpture revealed a temple pian. In view of the fineness of the image, the locals who were much impressed, shifted the same to the nearby Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari Street. Several carved pieces of the temple and also the laterite blocks were used as building materials in the construction.

The above evidences when put together bring to light the existence of a Jaina Temple with an image of Vardhamana and a tank (pushkarini) was in its front. It is very important and also interesting to note that the image is called 'Konetiraya' by the elders of the town. Thus the consecreted Vardhamana was regarded as the king (raya) and greatly revered.

It may be seen from the above facts that in Nellore proper there have been in existence at least three Jaina temples and sarovaras. As prescribed in the Jaina-agamas, for the ritual of Samavasarana, Sveta or Dhaval Saras (Lotus Tank) was a must. Hence the temples of Jina at Nellore had invariably been associated with stepped tanks whose remains were traceable. This ritual tradition was streamlined and observed strictly by the Digambaras during 8th-9th centuries A. D. The Mula Sangha of Sravanabelagola (Dist. Hassan, Karnataka State), was the seat of several Digambara acharyas of renown and the Svetasarovara here was the most sacred pushkarani for Jinas in the whole country.

Digambara Jainism spread from Karnataka to the region through Siddhout-Cuddapah and Badvel perhaps at the behest of Acharya Simhanandi of Sravanabelgola during 7th-8th century A. D.

4. SOME MORE JAINA SETTLEMENTS IN NELLORE DISTRICT:It is relevant to mention here some more Jaina remains in Nellore District. Robert Sewell and Goapala Krishna Murthy.23 mention as Jaina temple at Kanuparthi padu village which is 20 Km east of Nellore. The Jaina temple here was built by Karikala Chola of legolldary fame. But during the thirty seventh year of the Chola King Raja Raja Deva his consort Pramiladevi caused steps to the Palmlichamda and gifted lands for maintenance of the mopastery.24 The image of Parsvanatha Jina in this village bears close resemblance to the figure from Nellore described above.
Ruins of a Jaina temple along with the figure of Parsvanatha are traceable at Krishnapatnam under the silt (P1.12). The image is enshrined as a mulabera and the Sasanadeuatas, respectively Dharanendra yaksha and goodess Padmavati are paying obeissance from' either sides. Although foundational inscriptions are not traced. the Jaina vestiges in jhe Nellore region were of 9th century A. D. and during the later Telugu Chola times these were renovated and expanded too.

The style of Jaina figures in Nellore district resemble those of the Chalukyas and nearer Bapatla. Nellore also became famous during A. D. 849-893 A. D. during the reign of Gunaga Vijayaditya, 25 the Eastern Chalukyan king His vassal Panduranga enriched Kandukur to look like Bezwada in its grandeur and ruled the Nellore region.26

It might be of topical interest to critically examine some of the local temples in Nellore. More specifically the temple of goddess Irukala Paramesvari worshipped under the name of Yerukalamma as a Sakti presiding the place. The temple is located in Mulappet at the North east-wards of Svarnala Cheruvu, now popular as Nellore tank. This temple is built with lateritie blocks. Kulottunga Chola­III (1178-1226) offered worship to this deity and gave munificient gifts. Though defaced, the goddess like Chamundi has owl as lanchchana. She is the counterpart of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity.

From the Jaina inscriptions of South India the set of Sasanadevatas governing the Jaina temples and settelements have come to stay. In some other parts of south India we find similar practice in vogue. Two Jaina temples dedicated respectively to Vrshabhanatha ( 748-749 A. D.) and Chandranatha (1190-91 A.D.) existed at Perumandur village27 in Dindivanam Taluk of South Arcot district. The Jaina-Yakshas set up here were named as Irivikula Sundari Perumbali and Manganayaki named after the donor of the temple of images. The presiding deity of the Nellore temple was called like-wise Irukala-paramesvari or Irukalamma could thus be regarded as a Jaina Sasanadevi and the Svarnalacheruvu was the dhavalasaras for the Jaina ritual of Samavasarana.

It can also be reasonably held that "Lion" being the Vahana of Vardhamana Jina the king or rayadu of the place, the toponym Simhapuri to Nellore came to vogue. The Jaina acharya Simhanandi laid the seeds of Jainism, for the first time at this place, and this event also might justify the name Simhapuri to Nellore. In any case there is no doubt of the hold of Jainism in Nellore region.

Culturally the village names ending with Palli, Palai andPadu signifiedJaina settlements. In thes records of Kulottunga Chola-III (1178­ 1226), Nellore is called Pallinati or Palai Vikrama Simhapuri. It is quite reasonable to take the Konetirayad!,1, the principal Jina at the Jaina temple datable to 9th century A. D. as the owner of the older Jaina village. We may conclude that the name Simhapuri to Nellore originated from its being an important place of Jainism during the times of acharya Simhanandi.28

SlDDHULAYYAKONDA: (Village Saidapuram): (14° 12'N: 79° 44'E)This place is located 50 Km. from Nellore South-West, 30 Km. East of South Rapur, A recent discovery by G. R.Gehlot.29 Superintending Archaeologist, Hyderabad Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India and his colleagues is of great importance, as this is first and only rock-cut shelter (Pl.13) dedicated to Jaina faith in the area after Vallimalai in the neighbouring North Arcot district of Tamilnadu.
The sturdy Jaina Tirthan kara figures with trichatravali customary three-tiered umbrella, seated on a Simhasana in Sattva-paryanka are fixed inside Kudu like aurole. There are two such Tirthankaras, the first one measures .60 cm x 40 x 10 cms (Pls.14 and 15) is Adinatha flanked by two standing male chouri-bearers, while the other is Vardhamana, (56 x 38 x 10 cm) the Prabhavali, in tiers, with the seated Matanga Yaksha on the right, and Siddhayika on the left: The Vamavrita curls, trirekha of the neck and round bulged face and sturdy body features clearly reflect the characteristics of Vallimalai Tirthankaras and also Siyamangalam. Like in the rock caves, the cave of Siddulagavulu has an opening of a long bouldered frontage with an entrance door-way, the dripledge cut on the face of the rock above the top line meant to arrest the main water directly falling into the cave (PI. 13). This Jaina cave appears to have been ocupied in later periods by Alvars. The Jaina images too are regarded by the locals as alvars or generally Siddhu/u i.e. hermits.

Danavalapadu (district Cuddapah)According to the inscription of Rashtrakuta Nityavarsha Indra-III (915-927 A.D.) caused a Jaina basti at this place and installed on a Pitha the image of Santinatha, 16th Tirthankara. Danavalpadu presents an evolved state of ritual and iconography presents an evolved state of ritual and iconography of Jains. Several white granite/sandstone sculptures have been brought to Madras Govt. Museum. These include carved mandapa pillars, and nishidika stones, and Chaumukhas. Within a circular ridged Pitha amidst the temple ruins, (PLs. 16 & 17) clearly betray their original installation. The divinities carved in relief on the side edge of the circular Pitha (PL 18) are unique examples and chaumukhas were meant for the ablution of Santinatha. The structural jaina temple is an extensive basadi on the banks of Pennar river (PL 19). A ghat with stepped descent was also provided for use of the Jains. The introduction of abhisheka mar~s an advancement in the Jaina ritual and the sculptured Pithas with water chuta is a speciality of Danavalapadu.

The Jaina temples, Chaumukhas, a pedestal for Tirthankaras, 3-metre high figures of Parsvanatha (two in granite and Padmavati were unearthed (PL 20). Except a few at site rest are in Madras Museum. The Sarvatobhadrika was a set up in a square temple with openings at the four directions. A seated Jina, is seen who attained Kaivalya. In this case the figures could be those of Mahavira, Neminatha or Rishabhanatha.

Dharmayaram, in Ongole taluk of Prakasam district, is known as Dharmapuri for its being a place of Jaina Dharma. Two long hill ranges provided shelter to Jains. A Jinalaya was constructed at the east of the village proper by Duggaraja the Commander-in-Chief of Gunaga Vijayaditya. This Jinalaya was named as Katakabharana Jinalaya and several land grants were caused. Among the figures found in the village, Parsvanatha, and a grey stone Tirthankara now in Sub Collector's office are good examples. Munugodu in Sattenapalli Tq. was a Jaina Kshetra. It has the name-Prithvi tilaka Jaina basadi of the Svetambara Jainas. Kulotunga Choda-I, during his 37th regnal year gave land grants.

Anantapur Area:After Konakondla, important Jaina relics were noticed at Pedda Tumbalam, Chinatumbalam. Kambadur, Nayakahalli Adoni; Penukonda and more prominently Hemavati. We shall consider a few examples among these sites in a rapid way.

Hemavati, anciently known Henjeru, a capital of Nolambas who ruled between 8th-10th century A. D. and kept close contacts with Pallavas Gangas of Karnataka.

A figure of Adinatha (PI. 21) seated on a raised Simhasana Trichattravali, flanked by male chauries is an installed image and inscribed too in 9th-10th century characters. Another Jaina Tirthankara, Vardhamana in dhyana reveals the supple Nilamba features. Hemavati patronised Jains and a temple existed here. At Kambadur, the Jaina temple facing north has a plain tiered tower (pyramidal) over the garbhagriha, fronted by an ardhamandapa, a pillared hall all within a stone prakara wall. The door frame of the Pratoli shows Purnaghatas and a Jaina figures on the Lalata of the over door frame indicates its Jaina affiliation. A Jaina temple named Brahma-Jinalaya housing Parsvanatha is seen within Tailagiri Fort, in Amarapuram village of Anantapur district.

At Adoni hill, the rock-cut seated Jinas in a neat row (three nos) on the hill remind us Hanumakonda. Parsuanatha in Kayotsarga, Padmavati-Dharanendra. The huge are of Rashtrakuta vintage, boulders close the entrance.

Tadipatri on the banks of Pennar has two Jaina te!T1ples, one of Chandranatha, the other for Parsvanatha. These perhaps had been founded in 1208 A. D. by Chola Chieftan Vijayaditya by name.

BRONZES FROM BAPATLA AREA:Several bronzes of Jaina faith were found near Bapatla. Of these two are bells, eleven Tirthankaras and attendent Yaksha- Yakshini figures. These are now preserved in State Museum, Hyderabad. They are datable to 11th-12th century A.D.
Vardhamana seated in dhyana is flanked by Yaksha-Yakshini (P1.22) with chauris carved above. He has a Prabha surmounted by a Chatrauali, Parsvanatha is seated on an elaborate Simhasana with a prabha behind his head (P1.25). Yakshi Ambika with the child is shown below holding the branch of mango-tree (P1.26). Others include Parsvanatha, Neminatha, Padmaprabha, a Vidyadevi, etc. (P1.23, 24).

OTHER JAINA IMAGES IN THE STAGE MUSEUM, HYDERABADa. Patancheruuu : Hyderabad area is stated to have several Jaina basad is. Standing Bahubali in Kayotsarga with creepers entwining his legs is a powerful representation. The image is of 12th century A. D. Mahavira with 23-Tirthankaras carved around is impressive. The Jaina Sarasuati is an example of a robust female in supple form, with several ornaments on the body. A Chaumukha with Sikharais interesting.

An important centre of Jainism is Nizamabad. The Parsvanatha image with all the Maha Purusha lanchanas is interesting.

b. Kurikyal, Karimnagar district: An image of Yakshi chakresvari, attendent of Adinatha is a dated example with an inscription of the donor king Jinavallabha, brother of Pampa, the great Kannada poet (950 A.D.).

c. Chilukuru: A very robust figure of Parsvanatha is sandstone measuring 3.25 em. height standing in Kayotsarga was found at Chilukuru, just 20 Km. from Hyderabad. Another Mahavira seated in Padmasana in dhyanamudra, was of black basalt and one metre high. Two chauri bearers were also found.

JAINA MONUMENTS IN NORTH KARNATAKA

Dr. A. V. Narasimha Murthy

At the outset it is necessary to clarify that the division of Karnataka Into South and North is only for the sake of convenience. In this connection north Karnataka is taken as the area comprising the present Karnataka excluding the old Mysore State. The monuments in these districts have been considered in a chronological manner taking the dynasties also into consideration.
BEGINNERS:The origin of Jaina architecture in north Karnataka is still uncertain as the vestiges of the early period have not come down to us. Jaina structures contemporary to the sojourn of Bhadrabahu to Sravanbelgola have not been found here so far. Even the early historic excavations which exhibit Satavahana culture as at Vadagaon Madhavpur and Sannati have not yielded any antiquity or structure that can be associated with Jainism. However, it has to be noted that the antiquities and structures of the former site have yet to be studied in detail and the latter site is yet to be fully excavated. This leaves us with the Kadambas of Banavasi who were known to be patrons of Jainism as evidenced by their inscriptions.

KADAMBA PERIODThe existance of Jaina temples during the period of the Banavasi Kadambas is amply evidenced by their epigraphs. The earliest references to a grant by a Kadamba king to a Jaina saint is found in the Halasi copper plate of kakusthavarman.1 It mentions that the granted village Khatagrama belonged to arhanta. However, a reference to a Jain temple (Chaityalaya) is found in the Devagiri copper plate of Mrigesavarman.2 The insription states that Mrigesavarman gave a grant for the sammarjana, upalepana, archana and bhagnasamskara of the Chaityalaya located at Brihatparalur. Further he also donated for the enclosure of the Chaityalaya one nivartana of land. This clearly shows that the above Chaityalaya was big enough to have an enclosure also. In the Devagiri inscription of Vijaya Siva Mrigesavarman a reference is made to arhat sale where an image of Jinendra was kept. 3 Mrigesavarman's Halasi inscription of 8th regnal year states that the king built a Jinalaya in memory of his father in Palasika and granted lands to saints of Yapaniya, nirgrantha and kurchaka sangha.4 Ravivarma's eleventh regnal year inscription found at Halasi refers to a grant for the abhisheka of Jinendra.5 Obviously this refers to a, Jaina temple. Another inscription of the same king refers to the worship of Jinendra for which four nivartanas of land was granted .6

The famous Gudnapur inscription of Ravivarman is more explicit on this point.7 According to this inscription King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha, very' near the palace (rajavesma) and arranged for its worship by granting lands. At the same time he also gave grants to Kamajinalaya at Hakinipalli and Padmavati temple at Kalliligrama. Dr. B.R. Gopal who has edited this inscription has suggested that this Kamajinalaya is a temple for Bahubali, as Bahubali is described as Manmatha. If this is so, the tradition of erecting gommata sculptures goes back to the period of Kadambas and to sixth century A.D. itself. However, Dr. A. Sundara has discovered a sculpture of Rati and Manmatha at the same place. Whether this was the sculpture worshipped in the Kamajinalya cannot be ascertained. What is more important is the tradition of building Jaina temples for Manmatha and even Padmavati.

The Halasi inscription of Ravivarma refers to interesting information.8 It states that the income from the gifted village should be used for eight-day festival in Kartikamasa in the Jinalaya at Palasikanagara. It states at the end wherever Jinendra worship takes place properly, that place will prosper without any fear from enemies and the prowess of the king will improve. The Devagiri plates of prince Devavarma refers to gifts for the worship in the Chaityalaya and for the repairs of the Chaityalaya.9All the inscriptions referred to above mention gifts for worship and repair to Jaina temples. However, many of them refer to a Jaina temple at Halasi. The Jaina temple' now standing at Halasi can not go back to a period earlier than eleventh century A.D. Then the question is what happened to the basadis referred to in the inscriptions. Perhaps they might have been built by wood and obviously perished. A. Sundara's field work at Halasi throws very important light on this point.1O Very close to the Kallesvara temple at Halasi, he discovered an ancient site going back to megalithic and early historic periods. A large number of brick walls of the ancient period have been noticed by him in and around and abviously he thinks that this represents the Jaina temple built during the Kadamba period. Full scale excavations at Halasi and Gudnapur are bound to yield the brick temples of this early period. That would, show the contribution of the Kadambas of Banavasi to the Jaina architecture of Karnataka.
BADAMI CHALUKYAN PERIODAfter the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the early or Badami Chalukyan kings. Their contribution to architecture and sculpture is not only well known but unprecedented. Most kings of this powerful dynasty patronised Jainism also though they were the followere of Vedic Hinduism. This is attested to by many inscriptions including that of the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, composed by the famous poet Ravikirti. The Jaina architectural beginnings made earlier by the Kadambas of Banavasi, crystalised into better structures in stone during the early Chalukyan period. As they used stone as the medium of their architecture, they have come down to us in good numbers.

The Chalukyas of Badami ate known for their rock cut temples as well as structural temples. At Badami there are four rock cut temples belonging to Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina faiths. Incidentally this is an eloquent testimony to the religious tolerance of the kings and the people during the period. The fourth cave is the Jaina cave dedicated to Adinatha Tirthankara. He is seated on the lion pedestal, reclining slightly on the smooth cushion. There is a triple umbrella (mukkode) over his head in relief. There are two Chamaradharis attending on the Tirthankara. On the left wall is a standing sculpture of Suparsvanatha with a seven hooded snake over him. To his right is a Yakshi holding a Chatra; to the left is a Yaksha sitting. On the opposite wall is the sculpture of Bahubali intertwined with creepers. In the inner mandapa on both sides are found two sculptures of Mahavira. In addition there are sculptures of twenty eight Jinas. The whole cave is 31 ft. wide and the depth is 16 ft. The entire composition is very elegant.

Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. It has an open mandapa and a Sabhamandapa. In the garbhgriha is the sculpture of Mahavira in Padmasana. On the sides are yaksha and yakshi standing. In the open mandapa are found high relief sculptures of Parsvanatha and Bahubali. However, this cave is not as refined and elegant as that of Badami.

Now we may refer to the structural temples built by the Chalukayas of Badami. The following are noteworthy among them. They are - Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole; the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar; during the period of Kirtivarman II. Kaliyamma built a temple at Annigeri; the Jinalaya at Hallur; the Jinalaya built by Dharmagamunda at Adur in Hangal taluk. The Meguti Jinendralaya was built in 634 A. D. by Ravikirti The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala and a mukhamandapa perhaps a later addition. There is a narrow pradakshinapatha around the garbhagriha. In the garbhagriha attached to the wall is the sculpture of Mahavira. In the antarala was a fine sculpture of Yakshi Ambika sitting in ardha lalitasana. Over the garbhagriha is another garbhagriha which also has a sculpture of Tirthankara. The adhisthana has miniature decorations.

The Sankha Jinalaya at Lakshmesvar is dedicated to Neminatha. Sendraka Durgasakti, a feudatory of Pulakesi II is said to have given gifts to this temple.u It is possible that it may be earlier or atleast contemporary to the Meguti temple. Many other inscriptions show that this was an important Jaina temple during the period. an inscription of Vinayaditya dated 686 A.D. refers to a grant to Jaina acharya of Devagana and mulasangha.12 Another epigraph of the time of Vijayaditya dated 729 A. D. mentions a grant to Niravadya Pandita who was to house pupil of Sri PUjyapada.13 Still another inscription of the time of Vikramaditya II dated 734 A. D. mentions gifts to Sveta Jinalaya.14

The Jain temple at Hallur has garbhagriha, antarala, and rectanular Sabhamandap. The garbhagriha has an upper storey and is similar to Meguti temple. The Sabhamandapa is bigger than garbhagriha and antarala and has a seperate mukhamandapa which is in ruins. Thus it shows a more developed architectural feature. The outer walls of the Sabhamandapa has low relief sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras. Thus the Chalukyas of Badami contributed in ample measure to the development of Jaina temple architecture and laid firm foundations for further development during the Rashtrakuta period.

RASHTRAKUTA PERIODAltekar ,characterises the Rastrakuta period as the golden age of Jainsim in Karnataka. This is amply demonstrated by a large number of Jaina epigraphs and also generous grants to Jaina temples. Amoghavarsha I used to consider himself purified by the very remembrance of his guru Jinasenacharya.15 He is also described as a follower of Syadvada.16 He had appointed the famous Jaina saint Gunabhadra as the teacher for his son Krishna.17 Krishna gave liberal donations to the Jaina temple at Mulgund. Indra IV was a devoted Jaina and he died committing Sallekhana.18 Many of the Rashtrakuta feudatories like Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism, From all these evidences Altekar estimates that atleast one third of the total population of the Deccan during the period were Jains.19

The Jaina monuments of the Rashrakuta period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmesvar, Koppala, Bankur, in the present day karnataka and at Ellora in Maharastra which was included in the Rastrakuta empire, The jaina temple at Pattadakal consists of a garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa, The garbhgriha door jambh has a fine makara torana, Opposite walls of antarala have Devakoshthas to house Yaksha and Yakshis, The sabhamandapa is square and has four pillars in the centre, The mukhamanadapa has been provided with Kakshasanas, The garbhagriha has a dvitala Nagara sikhara, it has another garbhagriha on the first floor like the Meguti temple, The outer walls in the western and northern sides have Jina sculptures which confirm that this is a Jaina temple, It is believed that this temple was built either during the time of Amoghavarsha I (814-874 A.D.) or Krishna I (c. 770 A.D.). From the stylistic features ninth century A,D, seems' to be reasonable for this temple.
The Jaina basadi at Konnur in Dharwad district was built during the period of Amoghavarsha I, by Bankesa in 860 A.D, It has a garbhagriha, antarala, sabhamandapa and a ruined mukhmandapa, The unique feature of this temple is the star shaped gabhagriha, which later became a unique feature of the Hoysala temples in southern Karnataka- There are three niches .in the garbhagriha which is also rare, The antarala has two pillars while the Sabhamandapa has twelve pillars, The latter also has two stone Jalandhras, Th.e mukhamandapa is reached through flight of steps.

The Jaina temple at Naregal in Ron taluk of Dharwad district was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. (Now it is referred to as Narayana temple), It is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka, It has a sikhara of Dravida vimana type over the garbhagriha, Acutally it is a trikuta, The main garbhagriha of this temple was meant for a Jina, and is square, The other two garbhagriha are rectangular, and have rectangular pedestals from wall to wall with twenty-four holes indicating that both of them were meant for establishing twenty-four Tirthankara sculptures, This is also a unique feature of this basadi. This became common in the eleventh century A.D.

The Settavva temple at Aihole is another storeyed basadi. It is more elaborate in execution. It is also a trikuta. Besides it has three ardhamandapas and a common navaranga.

The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Unfortunately the original structure has been repaired often and henc.e it is difficult to know its original features. The garbhagriha has a fine seated Neminatha sculpture. Other sculptures found here are those of Parsvanatha, Dharanendra and Padmavati. Some more Jina sculptures are in the Sabhamandapa; but they seem to belong to later periods.

The basadi at Bankur in Gulburga district seems to belong to the end of the Rashrakuta period. There are many fine sculptures in this temple. Notable among them are Adinatha, Chandraprabha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Padmavati, high relief sculptures of twenty-four tirthankaras.

In addition to the above Jaina temples of the Rashtrakuta period many more are also found which are not properly documented. Outside the present Karnataka State, the Rastrakuta basadis are found at Ellora where there are three Jaina cave temples referred as Chota Kailas, Indrasabha and Jagannathasabha.

The Rashrakuta epigraphs supply evidence for the construction of many more Jaina temples which have not been properly located. Some important epigraphs may be noted below. In 875 A. D. Krishna II built a Jinendra bhavana at Savadatti.2O In 902 A. D. Pergada Bittayya built a basadi at Bandanike.21 During the period of Krishna II was built the Mahasrimanta basadi at Pennugunda. 22 In 925 A. D. Nagayya built a temple at Asundi when Chandraprabha bhattaraka of Dhora Jinalaya was the administrator.23 In 932 A. D., Chandavve built a basadi at Nandavara.24 In 964 A. D., a Ratta chief built Jayadhire Jinalaya at Kupana {modern Koppala).25 In 958 A. D. Jakki Sundari built a Jinalaya at Kakambal. 26

The above epigraphical references and the extant Jaina monuments prove that the Rashtrakuta period was a golden age from the point of view to Jaina architecture also. However, it has to be admitted that exploration of Rashtrakuta architecture in Karnataka has to be done more systematically. In this connection the good beginning made by S. Rajasekhara in identifying the possible Rashtrakuta monuments in Karnataka on the bas.is of stylistic evidences and epigraphs is worth laudable. 27 Further research is bound to yield more Rashtrakuta monuments including Jaina temples in Karnataka.

KALYANA CHALUKYA PERIODWith the decline of the Rashtrakutas, most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Though they are known to be Saivas, they built Jaina temples. Many kings of this dynasty also granted gifts to Jaina establishments and individual saints. The development of Kalamukhas on the one side and the Virasaivism of Basavanna on the other were making great progress in north Karnataka and naturally this did not give enough scope for Jainism to blossom as it did in the earlier Rashtrakuta period. Nevertheless, it flourished through the royal patronage and contributed its share in the development of architecture. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana is well known as the patron of the great Jaina poet Ranna. King Satyasraya had a Rajaguru Vimalachandrapanditadeva under whose feet the king is said to have learnt the tenets of Jaina dharma. Attimabbe, known as danachintamani is a well known personality of this period. She is said to have made one thousand copies of Ponna's Santi pur ana and distributed as Sastradana. She built a Jaina temple at Lakkundi to which the king provided a golden Kalasa.28 Somesvara's minister Santinatha persuaded Lakhma to build the Mallikamoda Santinatha basadi at Baligrama.29 All these show the existence of Jainism during the period as well as royal patronage.

The Chalukyas of Kalyana were great temple builders all over Karnataka and they brought out new development in various components of temple. This was adopted to the Jaina temples built by them. This is amptly brought out by K.V. Soundararajan when he states" ….the Jaina temple building efforts went through more or less the same stages of growth and development as the Brahmanical, Jainism nevertheless maintained its entity by taking recourse to certain iconographic specializations which called for a distinctive layout. In surface treatment again, the Jaina temples eschewed all ostentatiously carved richi1ess on the exterior wall or fabric of the temple but were not averse to an extravagant display of ornamentation and figure work in the interior". 30 These distinctive features are found in the Jaina temples built by the Kalyana. Chalukyas at Lakkundi and other places. They generally consist of a garbhagriha, antarala, navaranga and mukhamandapa. Usually they do not have sculptyres on the outer walls. In the navaranga pillars are found with small sculptures. The sculptures generally consist of Bahubali, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, other Tirthankaras, Yaksha, Yakshis, Chaumukhastambhas, Sahasrakut Jinabimba, Dvarapalas and Manastambhas.

The most important Jaina temples of this period are Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi, Charantimatha at Aihole and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmesvar. The Brahma Jinalaya built by Attimabbe represents a second phase of Chalukyan art for it not only represents a progress in architectural work but also uses finer grained schist instead of the usual granite. The latter has influenced its masonry, size and sculpture. The tample is highly imposing with dimentions of 93 ft. and 35 ft. It has a sikhara 42 ft. in height, which rise,s somewhat steeply in three storeys looking like a Chaturasra sikhara, with a sukhanasi. The mukhamandapa is spacious having entrances in east, south and north. The sculptures of Brahma and Padmavati are noteworthy.

The Charanti matha group at Aihole was built before 1119 A.D. on which date king Vikarmaditya VI through his subordinate Kesavayya Setti made arrangements for certain repairs, additions and endowments. The main temple of this group is dedicated to Mahavira. The temple has a garbhagriha, antarala, Sabhamandapa and mukhamandapa. It has a sikhara of the southern vimana type. There is also storeyed temple over the garbhagriha, a typical character of a basadi. The exterior wall is plain without any sculptures. The highly ornate doorways, drooping eaves and cornices of the corridor are highly elaborate and ornate. On the architraves of the front doors of the corridor are carved twenty four Tirthankaras, which add to the beauty of this temple.

Of the two Jaina temples at Lakshmesvar the more famous is Sankha Jinalaya which consists of a garbhagriha, a large ardhamandapa, larger mahamandapa and a rangamandapa. The rangamandapa has three entrances to south, north and west. It has a chaturmukha structure in dim unitive model, each of which carries three figures. it has a rekhanagara sikhara. The unique feature of this temple is the Sahasrakuta Jinabimba in minute form. There is a manastambha in front of the temple. Even though the temple is in ruins and has been renovated later, it presents a rare grandeur and stands as a testimony to the interest of the Kalyana Chalukyas in Jaina a.rchitecture. The other Jaina temple in this place is a trikuta dedicated to Adinatha.
The other Jaina temples of the Kalyana Chalukya period include Parsvanatha basadi at Udri, Bandalike, Parsvanatha basadi at Koppala, a ruined basadi at Halasi, Naminatha basadi at Terdal, a ruined basadi within the fort at Belgaum, Parsvanatha basadi at Ammangi in Belgaum district, a ruined basadi at Malkhed and another basadi at Sedam in Gulburga district. Most of these are in ruins and are simpler in dimensions and designs as compared to the classical basadis found at Lakkundi and other two places. However, these constructions show the widespread popularity of Jaina architecture in the north Karnataka region during the Kalyana Chalukya period.

As the Hoysalas did not have a permanent footing in north Karnataka due to the opposition of the Sevunas of Devagiri, there are no Hoysala monuments in this region. They are confined to southern Karnataka.

THE SEVUNA PERIODThe Sevunas of Devagiri ruled over most parts of north Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Tradition connects the Sevunas with Jainism. As evidenced by Nasikakalpa, Dridhaprahara one of the early king of this dynasty grew under the care of Chandraprabhasvamin and in recognition of this he named his capitgl Chandradityapura, after this Jaina saint. 31 Sevunadeva III was a devout Jaina. His Anjaneri inscription opens with an invocation to Pancha Parameshthis namely arhats, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus.32 Singhana II made a large number of grants to Jinalaya at Purikanagara for the worship of Parsvanatha and to the temple of Ananata Tirthankara. King Ramachandta made the grant of a village Hunisehalli for a Jinalaya. His Sarvadhikari is said to have built a basadi at the instance of his guru Jinabhattaraka. Apart from these epigraphical references, it is not possible to identify any of the Jaina temples built during the period.
VIJAYANAGARA PERIODIt is generally believed that Jainism began declining in Karnataka after the Hoysalas. With the establishment of the Vijayanagara empire, the accent was more on the Hinduism and obviously Jainism suffered a setback. Even numerically references to grants made to Jaina establishments become small in number epigraphically which also confirms the view that Jainism was loosing ground. This is amply demonstrated by the inscription of Bukka at Hampi, which tries to bring about a compromise between the Jainas and the Srivaishnavas. One of the representative Jaina temple at Hampi is the Ganagitti gudi built by Jinabhakta Irugappa Dandanayaka who was a minister under Harihara II, in 1385 A.D. The temple was dedicated to Kunthu tirthankara.

However, South Kanara and North Kanara became important centres of Jaina architecture during this period. Varanga, karkala, Mudabidre, Barakuru and other places became centres of Jaina art due to the patronage extended by Alupa kings of Tulunadu. This has been discussed in another paper, and hence we pass on to North Kanara district. The most important monument of the period in this district is the Chaturmukha basadi located at Gerusoppe. Though its builder is not known definitely, it is generally belieyed that queen Chennabhairadevi was responsible for the construction of this basadi. The entire basadi is built of greyish schist, popularly known as soapstone. It has a garbhagriha, in which four tirthankaras are kept who are facing the four directions. The garbhagriha has entrances on four sides and is a good example of Sarvatobhadra class. The tower has disappeared. There are many sculptures of tirthankaras, yakshas and yakshis which are of fine workmanship. The other temples in Gerusoppe are Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis. But they are small and do not compare well with the Chaturmukha basadi. However, the sculptures of these basad is are interesting.
The Chandranatha temple at Bhatkal is another structure of this period. Actually it is known as Jettappa Nayakana Chandranathesvara basadi. It consists of two blocks of buildings joined together by intervening porch in east and west. The western portion has two storeys. The interior is plain. The eastern portion serves as a porch to the temple. The garbhagriha has the sculptures of Rishabhanatha, Chandranatha and Mallinatha.

The Ratnatraya basadi at Bilgi is almost similar to the basadi at Bhatkal. But it is nirandhara. The three garbhagrihas have Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. There is a vide porch and a mukhamandapa which are plain. The pillars are not elegant at Haduvalli or Sangitapura there is a temple of Chandranatha. It is plain and has a flat roof. The sculptures of some Jinas are kept in the . The sculpture of Chandranatha is very elegant and show the Vijayanagara workmanship. However, the temple itself is not of high order. The metal images in this temple are of some interest. One of them identified as that of Rishabhanatha with gomukha Yaksha has an inscription of the Fourteenth century. Seventyone tirthankaras are represented on the prabhavali. There is another metal image of Padmavati of late date and shows the decadent style. Another stone sculpture of Padmavati also belongs to this style. After the seventeenth century, the construction of Jaina temples did not become artistic creations but served the religion. Thus the long tradition of Jaina monuments which perhaps started by the early centuries of the Christian era ended by the eighteenth century A.D. in north Karnataka.The above survey shows that Jaina architectural style developed side by side with other religions but imbibed certain qualities. Perhaps the architects and sculptors were common to all religions. The storyed garbhagriha is a special invention of the Jaina architects, as found in many Jaina temples. The Jainas did not have decoration or sculptures on outside walls but took care to use such decoration in a limited way within the structures. In the early period the temples of Mahavira were more popular but by about twelfth century other tirthankaras like Parsvanatha, Adinath and twentyfour tirthankaras became more popular. In the Vijayanagara period the construction of Chaturmukha basadis gained popularity. The presence of dvarapalakas also became popular from tenth century. The erection of Manastambha also seems to have come into existance from about the tenth century A.D. and later it became almost a general rule. Thus North Karnataka contributed richly to the development of Jaina architecture in Karnataka.