Enchanting Kazhugumalai, a symbol of religious harmony

By J Arockiaraj

TUTICORIN: Carved in the immortality of hard granite in the eighth century, the 1200-year-old sculptures at Vettuvankoil, the monolith temple in Kazhugumalai, speak volumes about its master craftsmen.
According to history and archaeology scholars, the uniqueness of the Vettuvankoil is the monolith 'vimanah', which is unlike the monolith ratham in Ellora and Mahabalipuram. And the site is the first example of Pandya's rich architectural skills, working on hard stones. There are about 122 sculptures in the rock cut temple with 13 statues dedicated for gods, 14 women, four nandhis, six unknown figures and 80 'boodakanangal'.

While the sculpture of Lord Uma Maheswara (Shiva - Parvathi) depicts them in a casual chatter, the one of Lord Dhakshinamurthy seems to be immersed in playing his eternal music from 'magara yazh' (Lyre). It is believed these sculptures are unique and not found anywhere else. The sculptures display a unique chubbiness in their countenances not found in other temples for even the lions carved in the stones are very comical. On the contrary are the bas relief panels of Jain monuments very near to the temple where the Theerthankaras are found frozen in the stone in their everlasting meditation, with their faces glowing in divine serenity.

R Venkataraman, a historian based in Madurai says the sculptures in Vettuvankoil can be distinguished by their chubby countenances itself. "Both the deities in Vettuvankoil and Jain sculptures are two different forms of devotion. While Saiviite temple displays the ecstasy of divine experience, the Jain sculptures speak the indulgence of it, within the inner soul. Interestingly, both the religions - Hinduism and Jainism - thrived in the same region at the same period, thus narrating the religious harmony in those days," he said. Another historical monument in Kazhugumalai is the cave temple of Lord Kaluguchalamurthy that attracts many pilgrims.

Kazhugumalai is believed to be the university of Jain philosophy, especially the abode of Dikambara monks. Though the Jains were living in the hills from the first and second century AD onwards, the present stone architecture evolved around the 8th and 9th centuries when Jainism thrived in the region. Though prosecuted in the 6th century at the rule of Koon Pandian, the Jains came back in the 7th century, patronized by Cheranmahadevi, the wife of Pandiya king Veeranarayanan and established the stone architecture in the hillock, he said. "It is from here, the Jain monuments, including the ones in Madurai flourished as the disciples of Jain monks from Kazhugumalai carried the stone carving methods to their new destinations and the hillocks of Madurai and other places acted as the colleges while Kazhugumalai was considered as university," Venkataraman said.

"Moreover, Kazhugumalai is the birth place of iconology, the study of placing the deities in the temples," says Venkataraman. "Based on the method followed in Vettuvankoil even during the eighth century, the 'agama' of placing deities evolved later in 10th century thus creating a rule book," he mentioned.

From TOI

The Mandagapattu cave temple

The writing on the cave

By Lakshmi Sharath

The Mandagapattu cave temple is a treasure-trove of early Pallava art

A small rusty board brings our car to a sudden halt. Surrounding us are lush paddy fields with massive boulders in the backdrop. A lone woman works on her crop, as we cut through the thorny bushes and walk across the fields. We meet a huge hill with boulders stacked precariously.

The hill seems to open out to us, as we walk through the narrow opening to reach our destination — the cave temple at Mandagapattu carved out of a 100-foot hillock.

“Welcome to Pallava cave hunting” says Vijay Kumar, who had initiated me into the world of Pallava and Chola temples through his website www.poetryinstone.in. At Mandagapattu, I realise I'm already lost in the world of stone.

A flight of steps leads us to the cave temple, carved for the trinity, and flanked by the door guardians or dwarapalakas. The shrines are empty. “This is the first prototype of the Pallava rock-cut cave temple, built by Mahendravarman I in the 7th Century,” says Vijay.

To me, Pallava architecture has always been synonymous with Mamallapuram or Kadal Mallai, as it was originally called.

Built by Narasimhavarman I or Mamalla, the rock-cut cave temples here, I am told, owe their inspiration to Mahendravarman's cave shrines strewn around Ginjee, Tindivanam, Kancheepuram, Arakonam and Chengalpet, among others.

“The early Pallava style has bulky pillars, not too many embellishments even in the form of relief sculptures, and the depiction of the door guardians is not too bold. Later, the architecture became more evolved as they moved towards building structural temples,” explains Vijay.

Our companion Arvind shows us a Sanskrit inscription where Mahendravarman declares that he is not building the temple from any perishable material — brick, wood, metal and limestone or stucco. “That is why he is called Vichitrachitha, an innovator in many ways,” he explains. The temple, in the inscription, is referred to as Lakshita Yathaanam.

“Mahendravarman showed leanings towards Jainism before he gravitated towards Hinduism — which is probably why one finds Jain settlements near his cave temples,” adds Vijay.

We are at Thalavanur, close to Mandagapattu, where the temple, Shatrumalleswaram, is carved at the edge of another hillock, overlooking boulders. The temple houses door guardians flanking a linga. “Note the advancement in art here,” mentions Vijay, “as we take in the makartoranas in the front façade.” A small flight of rock-cut steps carved on the hill takes us to the shelters of Jain monks who probably meditated and rested there.

An old man walks up to us from across the fields and proclaims he is the caretaker. A stray dog follows him, his howls echoing through the hills, as we retrace our steps.

Article Courtasy: The Hindu

Preservation of the Past

S. S. KAVITHA

The Jain beds strewn around our ancient city comprise a valued cultural treasure. The inscriptions on them and the bas-relief sculptures are the remaining evidence of Tamil language's antiquity besides indicating the flourishing period of Jainism during various centuries.

Mostly, the Jain caves have the bas-reliefs of tirthankaras and the inscriptions that tell the tale of people of all walks of life from chieftains to common man and how they patronized Jainism. The inscriptions also throw light on the number of Jain schools that existed during the period.

Another hill that stands tall withstanding vandalism and vagaries of nature is the hillock at Muthupatti. More popularly known as Karadipatti alias Perumalmalai, the hillock has two bas-relief structures of tirthankaras, a separate beautiful but ruined tirthankara sculpture, three Brahmi inscriptions, Jain beds and two vattezhuthu inscriptions.
Sculptures

The two bas-relief sculptures of tirthankaras are sitting on Arthapariyankaasana posture on a pedestal borne by three lions. Attendants are found on both sides of the structures. The head is adorned with triple umbrella. Below the sculptures, there are two ‘vattezhuthu' inscriptions that date back to 9th or 10th century A.D.

The first inscription refers to a Jain school located at Kurandi near the present Aviyur village that is located between Madurai – Aruppukottai road, according to Archaeological sources. The source say: A small hill at Kurandi village is known as ‘Paranthaga Parvatham' and the school located at this place is called Sri Vallabha Perumpalli.

The word Paranthaga might be identified with the Pandya King Paranthaga Nedunchadaiyan, who ruled Pandya country during 768 to 815 A.D. His son Srimara Sri Vallabha, who ruled during 815 to 862 A.D. might have patronized this Jain school. So the school is named after him. A student of the school, Mahanandhi Periyar, who is the student of Ashtopavasi Padarar, carved this sculpture.

Another inscription mentions the village Kurandi is in the limit of Venbunadu- a sub-division of Pandya country. Here the village Kuyilkudi is mentioned as ‘Amirthaparakrama Nallur' alias Kuyilkudi. Here, Kanagaveera Periyadigal, a disciple of Gunasena Thevar, installed the image on behalf of Kuyilkudi village. The inscriptions also refers that the palanquin bearers of the palace have undertook the duty of protecting the sculptures. Kurandi School has wide contact with Kazhugumalai Jain School and Palani Ivar Malai Jain School. There were also teachers-student exchange programmes, the source noted.

The separate sculpture of a tirthankara, who is on ‘arthapariyankaasana,' is seen on a pedestal borne by three lions. He is fanned by attendants (yakshas) from the sides while a streak of light and branches of pindi (Asoka) tree are seen at the back of his head. The sculpture represents the early Pandya sculptural art during 9th century A.D.

Tamil Brahmi inscriptions

Belonging to first century B.C., one of the three Tamil Brahmi inscriptions has a reference to a resident of Musiri, the port city of Kerala on the Western Coast. Archaeological sources say that the resident might have carved out these Jain beds. Another inscription carved at the side of a stone bed is damaged and it is hard to decipher while the third inscription has a reference to ‘Vindaiyur.' The Vindaiyur may be identified with present Vandiyur, he says.

It is said that Jain monks chose Madurai, capital of Pandya Kingdom, to propagate their religion as the city enjoyed the status of being an important trading centre. The city structures and sculptures, indeed, narrate stories of the past as we browse through history.

Jain Caves in Orissa

One of the earliest of Jain rock-cut shelters, the caves of Udayagiri command a unique position in
eastern India in the fields of history, rock-cut architecture, art and religion.

The records, found incised on the walls of some of these caves, furnish the supreme evidence of the existence of a powerful dynasty, the 'Chetis' (Chedis). They reveal that some time in the 1st
century B.C. or slightly earlier, the rulers of the Cheti dynasty, who called themselves
'Mahameghavahanas', came into power in Kalinga.

Of the rulers of the dynasty, only the names of 'Kharavela' and 'Kudepasiri' or 'Vakradeva', together with that of a prince, 'Vadukha', are known from the inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves, though their mutual relationship is not known.

While Kudepasiri and Vadukha are known only as the donors of two of the cells of the lower storey of Cave-9 (Manchapuri) of Udayagiri, many details are available about Kharavela from his famous inscription engraved on the brow of the rock over Cave-14 (Hathi-gumpha) of the same hill. The inscription, in seventeen lines, is largely defaced and indistinct, with the result that its full text cannot be made out and its interpretation is not always above doubt. But
the following facts seem to be well-established.

The third king of his dynasty, Kharavela was a powerful ruler. As a prince, he acquired great
proficiency in games and received good education. He was installed as 'Yuvaraja' (crown prince) when he was sixteen and succeeded to the throne when he was twenty-five. Almost immediately thereafter he launched Kalinga on an ambitious career of conquest, leading expeditions far and wide. In the second year of his rule he led his troops to the west without caring for the Satavahana king 'Satakarni' and reached the river Krishna, where he threatened the city of Asika.

In his fourth year he captured the capital of a prince named 'Vidyadhara' and subdued the 'Rashtrikas' and 'Bhojakas' in the north Deccan. Four years later, he stormed 'Gorathagiri' (Barabar hills, District Gaya) and harassed the ruler of 'Rajagriha' (Rajgir, District Nalanda). A 'Yavana' (Indo-Greek) king is said to have fled to Mathura out of fear.

In his eleventh year he destroyed the city of 'Pithuda' (Masulipatam region) and next year
threatened the rulers of 'Uttarapatha' (north India) and defeated King 'Bahasatimita' of Magadha (south Bihar). He brought back with him booty from Ariga (east Bihar) and Magadha, including a Jain-cult object (Kalinga-fina), which had been taken away long ago by 'Nanda', the ruler of Magadha. Next he snatched treasures from the 'Pandyan' king in the extreme south. Thus, the brunt of Kharavela's sword was felt throughout a large part of India.

Kharavela was as great in peace as in war. In the first year of his rule he rebuilt the gates and walls of 'Kalinganagara', his capital, which had been devastated by a cyclone. In the fifth year he enlarged a canal, said to have been excavated by a Nanda king three hundred years ago. In the 'Kumari-Parvata' (Udayagiri Khandagiri) he excavated, in the thirteenth year, caves for Jain ascetics and erected at an enormous cost, on the 'Pragbhara' in the neighbourhood of the monastic retreats, a certain structure with hundreds of stones collected from different quarries
and pillars with core of cat's eye gem. No doubt Kharavela was a ruler of great accomplishments.

In spite of his claiming an eclectic attitude by honouring all sects and repairing temples of all gods, Kharavela was undoubtedly a Jain and espoused with great zeal the cause of his faith, which appeared to have been the state religion of Kalinga and which had received a set-back not only when the Nandas of Magadha (4th century B C) carried away the 'fina' of Kalinga, probably as a trophy, but also with Buddhism gaining foothold under the Mauryan king Asoka (circa
273-36 B C) when he annexed Kalinga to his empire.

It is obvious that during the rule of the Mahameghavahanas the hills were honeycombed with
caves. In addition, Kharavela's chief queen is known to have been the donor of the upper storey of Cave-9 ('Svargapuri') of Udayagiri. It is also almost certain that the majority of the caves originated during this period. At the same time, an earlier origin of the Jain establishment on the hills is not entirely ruled out. It is also not unlikely that the Kalinga-fina removed by the Nanda king and recovered by Kharavela had its original enshrinement on the hills and was reinstalled here by Kharavela.

After the fall of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, Jainism is not known to have enjoyed royal patronage, but the religion doubtless continued to have its stronghold on the hills, despite the political vicissitudes, through which the country passed. The rise of the 'Lakulisa-Pasupata' sect, which transformed Bhubaneswar into a 'Saiva' centre and the growing influence of which was ultimately responsible for the decline of Buddhism in that city and its surroundings, hardly affected this Jain centre, whose inscriptions show that it continued to be inhabited under the
'Bhaumas' and their successors, the 'Somavamsis'.

However, during the rule of the latter, Khandagiri, called Kumaraparvata in an inscription of the fifth year of 'Udyotakesari' (11th century) in Cave-11, acquired greater prominence and a few of the old cells were converted into sanctuaries by the carving of reliefs of Tirthankaras and the Sasana-devis on the walls. This period also saw the construction of structural temples, suggested not only by the above-mentioned inscription recording the setting up of the images of twenty-four Tirthankaras, but also by the discovery of a large number of nude chlorite
images of different Tirthankaras and enormous numbers of architectural fragments lying in some areas on the hill.

The prolonged Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the 'Gangas' and their successors, the 'Gajapatis', is proved by the crude reliefs of the Tirthankaras on the walls of Cave-9 (Trisula-gumpha) of Khandagiri, which are not earlier in date than the 15th century and may be even later. Evidence regarding the cells being tenanted in this period by the monastic fraternities is, however, lacking.

The period thereafter is blank in the history of Khandagiri till the construction of the temple on the crest. Stirling, who noticed the temple in 1825, noted it as "a neat stone temple of modern construction". He does not make any mention of Jain monks living in the caves, though the place was 'frequented by the Jain or Parwar merchants of Cuttack, who assemble here in
numbers, once every year, to hold a festival of their religion'. It is thus evident that the Jain occupation of the hill was continuous, if with occasional breaks from even before the time of Kharavela down to the present day.

Jain Icons, Caves and Temples

Satish Kumar Jain

[ Paper read at the 6th Biennial Convention of Federation of Jain Associations of America and Canada held in Stanford University (San Francisco) California, U.S.A. ]

Jainism is an independent and one of the oldest living religions of the world. According to Jainism, in the internal time span there have been cycles of 24 Tirthankars in every Avasarpani and Utsarpani division of time. The present cycle of 24 Trithankars started with the first Tirthankar Rishabhadev. It ended with the 24th Tirthankar Bhagwan Mahavir.

The 22nd Tirthankar Neminath was cousin son of Shri Krishna's uncle and is thus a historical personality. The 23rd Tirthankar Paraswanath was born at Varanasi in B.C. 877. After rigorous penances as an ascetic he attained salvation in B.C. 777 at Mt. Paraswanath (Bihar). Bhagwan Mahavir was born at Kundalpur in the republic of Vaishali (Bihar) in B.C. 599. Acharang and canonical literature give graphic description of his practicing penances. He preached his philosophy of 5 important doctrines-non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celebacy and non-accumulation of wealth in various parts of the country. He attained salvation in B.C. 527 at Pawapuri (Bihar). From the post-Tirthankar period, i.e. after Bhagwan Mahavir, there continues a tradition of learned Acharyas, who communicated to the people the great knowledge of the Trithankars.

The people had very high regard for the Tirthankars for their highly ideal life of renunciation and extreme good to the people. After them, the devotees intensely felt their physical non-existence as moral and spiritual guides, which gave rise to the tradition of symbol worship.
The symbols have been twofold: (i) Atadakar (without image of Tirthankar) and (ii) Tadakar (with image of Tirthankar).

ATADAKAR SYMBOLS
The Atadakar Jain symbols included Chaitya tree, stupas, Tri-ratna, chaitya-stambha, poorn ghat, flower wreath etc. Asta-Pratiharya and Ayagpattas were also considered as important Jain symbols. The Ayagpattas, rectangular stone-slabs, bore various Jain symbols with or without the image of Tirthankar. Those were the objects of worship. The Ayagpattas found in the excavations of Kankali-Tila Mathura of the very early centuries are important. According to Buhler the slabs for worshipping Arhatas were known as Ayagpattas. These were established before each of the four entrances of the Stupas. All these symbols were much in vogue in the early period of art.

TADAKAR SYMBOLS
With the development of art forms, iconography received considerable attention and the images of Tirthankars began to be made. In the later period the worship of Tirthankars in idolatory form became most popular.

In the early period of iconography, the Jain idols were established at little height from the surface ground in a vedika (alter) like structure. Later on, these were roofed and came to be known as Devayatans, Devalayas or Temples. With the advancement in building making the simple temple style had drastic change and larger and artistic temples began to be constructed. The rock cut caves were also effected both to serve as places of worship and as abodes of Jain ascetics for their short period wanderings.

JAIN TEMPLES
The temple making derived its inspiration from the Samavasarana of Tirthankar, in which Tirthankar had his seat in Mulgandha Kuti. Samavasarana was, therefore, taken as the model of a Jain temple. Earlier, the Jain temples had a Man-Stambha in each of the four directions, like that of the Samavasaran. Later, one Man-Stambha, in front of the main entrance of the Jain temple, continued to be built in many Jain temples of India.

Temple making is also said to have its base in the concept of existence of Sumeru and Kailasa, the inaccessible mountains, the abodes of Ishta-Dev. Since it was not possible for the devotees to reach these mountains and worship the Ishta, they thought of raising Sumeru and Kailasa like structures, where the Ishta could appear and be worshipped. These two mountains were thus the models for temple making as well as for making spires of the temples. The coins of 5th-4th century B.C. bear spire like structures. Some damaged old seals bear inscription of early forms of temples.

There are literary references of temples which existed even before 6th century B.C. in Mathura, Kampila and other places. Temple making appears to have its start from North India.

THE HISTORY OF ICONOGRAPHY
The historians and the archaeologists now agree that the pre-Vedic civilization in India has a rich heritage. The excavations carried out in Mohanjodaro (Sindh Province of Pakistan) and Harappa (Montgomari Distt. in Punjab in Pakistan) in 1922 and thereafter give evidence of the pre-Vedic civilization. According to the former Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, Sir John Marshal, in Sind and Punjab areas such people lived five thousand years back, who had a developed civilization which excelled the contemporary civilization of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The Panis or the Vratyas, adherents of Sraman culture, are believed to have also lived in western & northern India. While the Aryans entered India (C. 1500 years B.C.), they pushed many of those Dravids to the south. The Panis were expert navigators, successful businessmen, possessing knowledge and wisdom and knowing fine arts. They also spread to many parts of the world and settled there. They were idol worshippers.

Some seals obtained from the Mohanjodaro excavations have the images of ascetics in Yoga-Mudra. One of the seals with an ascetic is in Kayotsarga (Khargasan) i.e. in standing posture absorbed in meditation with his cognizance, the bull standing nearby. This is considered by many as the earliest seal depicting the first Jain Tirthankar Rishabhadev.

There is also a red stone nude torso (without head, arms and legs) found from the excavations of Harappa (Indus Valley civilization cir. G 2300-1700 B.C. or 3700-4300 years back from now), and kept in the National Museum, New Delhi. If at any time it is established as Jain torso, the Jain icon making will have its history atleast 4000 years old from now.

There is reference in the Jain texts like Avashyak Churni, Nisheeth Churni, Vasudeva Hindi, Tri-Sasti Salaka-Purush Charit that Uddayan, ruler of Sindhu-Sauvir had a sandalwood image of Bhagwan Mahavir. Made in the life time of Mahavir, it was, therefore, known as Jiwant-Swami and shows Mahavir as a Prince, with crown on his head. The ruler of Avanti (Ujjain), king Pradyot is said to have managed to obtain this image through a maid-servant by replacing the original one with a similar looking wooden image.

In their earliest form, the Jain images were of clay which were baked for longer life. Those had proportionate figure. Such clay images have been found from the excavations of Harappa, Kaushambi, Mathura, etc. As the baked clay idols were not durable, the making of stone idols came into vogue.

The earliest Jain stone idols are of Yakshas and Yakshies. Those are surprisingly not of Trithankars and are also not of artistic significance. Many of them did not have proportionate figure.

So far the known earliest Jain images are the two torsos found from Lohanipur area of Patna. These Tirthankar images were found while digging a sewer made of stone. These have no head or legs. These are exhibited in Patna Museum. Having shining polish, which is a characteristic of the Mauryan sculptures, these are considered to be of Mauryan period (B.C. 320-158). Mauryan polish is that famous technique of early craftsmen, who handled the rough material of the stone until it resembled glass in smoothness.

A Kalinga Jina (Rishabhadev image) is also mentioned in some Jain texts and the Hathigumpha 17 line inscription in Brahmi script in Udaigiri Hill, near Bhuvaneshwar. This is eulogy of King Kharwel (B.C. first century). There is mention in this earliest Jain epigraph that while conquering the Nandas of Magadha, king Kharwel of Kalinga (present Orissa) brought back the image to his capital, which had been forcibly taken to Magadha by Nandas. Some believe that the above Lohanipur bust is that very Kalinga Jina. There is however, no historically established evidence on that.

The iconography saw its rapid development in the Sake-Kusana period (1st-2nd century A.D.). Mathura was then its principal centre. Images in sitting posture of Tirthankaras Adinath, Shantinath, Munisuvratnath, Neminath, Paraswanath and Mahavir were mainly made, which did not bear symbols or cognizances. Many of the earlier Adinath images are found with hair lock on the shoulders. Besides Tirthankar images, Ayagpattas, Stupas, images of Yakshas, Yakshis, Saraswati, auspicious symbols, Chaitya-tree were also made. A special feature of the period was introduction of four faced images-Sarvatobhadrikas.

The Gupta period (4th to 6th century A.D.) and the post-Gupta period (mainly upto 10th century A.D.) had the best of iconography with the making of highly adorned images also having Tirthankar cognizances and auspicious symbols inscribed on them. Double, tripple and four faced images as also Pancha-tirthi, Tri-tirthi and Dwi-tirthi, i.e. having five, three and two Tirthankar images inscribed on the same slab or stone were also made. Making of Chaturvinshati Jain images, i.e. one stone/slab having inscribed images of the 24 Tirthankars, was also in vogue. Goddesses with two, four, six, ten and twelve arms were made. Making images of some goddesses, with arms in front and back side and of some with arms in all the four sides was a very special feature of this period. Images of Yakshas-Yakshis, Vidyadhar goddesses, Panch-Parmestins, Bharat and Bahubali were also made. The Jain images in large number in Deogarh (U.P) Chanderi, Gwalior, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) and various other places are the master-pieces of this period.

The Swetamber Jain images mainly began to be made from Gurjar-Pratihar and Kalturi periods, in the post-Gupts period.

The finest of the Jain images, highly adorned, are found in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western U.P. In south too, particularly in Karnataka, Jain colossals and other images were made. 57 feet high monolith Gommateswar (Bahubali) statue created by Chaumundrai-the Minister and Commander of the Ganga ruler Rachmall IV in 981 A.D. at Sravanabelgola is the finest example of iconography known world over. The other colossals of Bahubali are at Karkal (41'3" - 1432 A.D.), Venur (35' - 1604 A.D.), Dharmasthala (39' - 1973 A.D.) all in Karnataka, and Firozabad (35' - 1976 A.D.) in U.P. The 84 feet high monolith Adinath statue of Bawangaja (Badwani) in M.P., which has been renovated at high expense and which is about 1200 years old, is also worth mention, besides the 34 feet high highly attractive Tirthankar statue in sitting posture in Gwalior Fort. Gwalior Fort is very rich in having Jain icons, say few thousands, including 58 feet high colossal and many other colossals in standing and sitting posture. Mathura, Chanderi, Narwar, Khajuraho, Devgarh, Ahar and many other places have been important centres of Jain idol making in the past, while Jaipur (Rajasthan) and Karkal (Karnataka) are the foremost centres of the present time.

STUPAS
The stupa was an early form of structural architecture of the Jains as evidenced by the excavations of Kankali-Tila site at Mathura. As the saying goes, the earliest stupa (Temple) was made by gods during the time of 7th Tirthankar Suparswanath and was later renovated in the period of Tirthankar Parswanath. It was known as Vodvo-Stupa. Its mention has been made on the pedestal of image of Tirthankar Munisuvrat of 2nd century A.D. found in Kankali Tila excavations. Actually, even by the 2nd century A.D. this stupa had become so ancient that the facts about its origin were completely forgotton and it came to be ascribed to gods. The stupas generally had four Vedicas (Alters) for worship. Though the Jain literature abounds in references to stupas but the only extant remains are of one or more stupas in Kankali-Tila at Mathura of the centuries immediately before and after Christ. Some of the Ayagpattas found in Kankali-Tila excavations bear inscriptions of Jain stupas. Building stupas, however, seems to have lost favour with the Jains by the close of the Gupta Period.

CAVES
The Jain ascetics earlier did not enter the cities. They preferred to have short stay in forests, caves, rock-shelters, etc. outside the dwelling places. More than 200 sites in India have the existence of natural or man made Jain caves. Many of the sites in various parts of India have been visited by me, which are a splendid creation. The man made caves were mainly created for the Jain monks and for worship. The earliest among those are four caves of Mauryan period made in the middle of 3rd century B.C. for Ajivak Jain saints in Barabar Hill and Nagarjuni Hill, 12 miles south of Rajgir, two rock cut caves (twin caves) of Son Bhandar at Rajgir also of Mauryan period, and Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha at Udaigiri Hill near Bhuvaneshwar (1st century B.C.). Later, larger caves were created at Vidisha (2 Jain caves among 20 Gupta period caves), Terpur and Ellora caves in Maharashtra, and at many other places.

The tradition of cave making with the Jain images inscribed in them is found in a developed form in Sittanvasal (Tamil Nadu), Aihole and Badami Jain Caves (Karnataka) and Ellora and Terpur Jain Caves. The Ellora group of Jain caves created in 10th-11th century A.D. is indeed the finest example of cave making in India in quality of sculpture and inscriptions. The Jagannath and Indrasabha caves are fully developed forms of Jain temples having vedikas, full size images of Tirthankars, huge columns and roof and wall decorations. It is from Ellora Jain caves that the art of Jain temple making went on improving in craftsmanship.

Also in the Tamil region there are number of rock-carverns at various places which are with or without beds created for the Jain saints right from the 2nd-1st century B.C.

JAIN TEMPLES
The Jain temples do not appear to have the origin before the commencement of iconography. Temple architecture is a direct result of icon or image worship since at least the historic times. The Buddhist texts speak of the existence of Arhat-chaityas in the Vajji country and Vaisali, which had come down from pre-Buddha and so from pre-Mauryan times. From the 4th century B.C. there is direct evidence of the existence of Jain images, cave temples and structural shrines or temples. Ramnents of temples found from the excavations of Lohanipur, Sravasti and Mathura do not help in assessing the exact form of the ancient Jain temples. The earliest forms of temples were known as Yakshayatan and Yaksha-chaitya. The Jain caves which were known as cave temples are being considered different from Jain temples. The rock cut Jain caves are, however, of earlier origin. The rock cut caves have their origin in the pre-Christian era.
Earlier, the temples were simple in form. The Vedika and spire are the later additions, as is known from the temples of Mathura built in 2nd and 1st century B.C.

The temple making became popular during Mauryan and Shunga periods with constant uptrend in Shak-Satvahan period (1st-2nd century B.C.), while the images of Tirthankars began to be inscribed in various portions of the temples including the columns. Mathura, capital of Saurasena-an important city from 6th century B.C., Ahichartra, Kausambi, Kampila and Hastinapur were the principal Jain temple centres during Kushan period. As in the case of iconography, the temples, highly adorned were built in large number during Gupta period (4-6th century A.D.). After 600 A.D. (post-Gupta period), Nagar Style of temple making became popular in northern India while Dravida style was profusely accepted in the South.
In the post-Gupta period the four styles of temple making became prominent, viz. Gurjar-Pratihar, Kalturi, Chandel and Kachhapghat. The broad three classifications of temple making style are Nagar, Vesar and Dravid.

The temple making received very good impetus during the period 6th-13th century A.D. as it received considerable support of the rulers, courtiers and wealthy persons of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, some parts of U.P. and Karnataka. Best of the Jain temples were built during this period at many places including Ghanerao, Osia, Mount Abu, Ranakpur, Chittor Fort, Jaisalmer, Jhalrapatan, etc. all in Rajasthan; Gyaraspur, Vidisha and Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh; Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh; Shatrunjaya-Palitana, Girnar, Taranga, Kumbharia, all in Gujarat; Hampi (Old Vijaynagar), Hellebid, Sravanbelgola, Mudbidri in Karnataka. The Jains generally selected picturesque sights for their temples, valuing rightly the effect of environment on architecture.

Some of the very famous Jain temples in India are as under:
* Paraswanath and Adinath temples at Khajuraho (10 century A.D.)
* Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi, Dilwara-Mount Abu (1032 A.D. & 1231 A.D.)
* Adinath temple at Ranakpur (1439 A.D.)
* Neminath and other temples at Girnar (13 century)
* Adinath and other Jain temples at Shatrunjaya (10th century and after)
* Ajitnath temple, Taranga (1165 A.D.)
* Mahavir, Paraswanath and Shantinath temples at Kumbharia (11th century A.D.)
* Adinath Jain temple and Kirti Stambha at Chittor Fort (c-1200-1500 A.D.)
* Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur (late 9th century A.D.)
* Sumantinath Jain temple at Jaisalmer
* Mahavira temple at Ossia (783-92 A.D.)
* Deogarh Jain temples (cir.850 A.D.-13th century A.D.)
* Mahavir temple at Ghanerao.

Indeed the Jain community is proud of the vast and varied sculptures which were built during the last 1700 years-4th century B.C. to 13th century A.D.

Contributions of Jainism to Indian culture

By Dr. K. C. Jain

(i) Stüpas and Monasteries :
Jaina architecture is concerned withStüpas, monasteries, caves, temples and Mänastambhas. The Ävaáyaka Chürîi of Jinadäsa (C. 676 A.D.) mentions the Stüpa dedcated to the 20th Tïrthaõkara Munisuvrata at Vaiáälï, but its remains have not yet been discovered. The Stüpa of Mathura dedicated to the seventh Tïrthankara, Supärávanätha is known to have been built by the gods Devanirmita10. This shows that it was very old, and its origin was forgotten. Some ascribed it to the third century B.D. while others to the sixth century B.C. In two votive tablets, the figure of this Stüpa is found engraved. Another Jaina Stüpa of Mathura is of Kushäîa period. From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'NigaûasaVihära Dïpe11 inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The excavations 12 conducted at a site called Vaââamanu, named after Vardhamäna in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihära and Samprativihära are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name Samprati-Vihära proves tha Samprati was a historical figure. At Paharpur in Bengal was found a copper plate inscription of the fifth century A.D. which mentions the name of the Äcärya Guhanandi of Pañchastüpänvaya and Jaina Vihära (monastery) of Vaûa Gohäli. In excavation also, the remains of the monastery were discovered.

(ii) Caves : There are caves and caverns associated with Jainism in the southern Districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the third or second century B.C. engraved on them record mostly the dedication of abodes for Jaina monks. The caves on the Udaigiri and the Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa belong to the second or the first century B.C. as known from the inscription of Khäravela. The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District ofAndhra Pradesh. The Son-Bhaîâära cave at Räjgôha in Bihar is assigned to the first century B.C. At Pale in Poona District of Maharashtra, there is a cave with an inscription of the first century B.C. At Pabhosa, near Allahabad, there are two caves with an inscription of the second century B.C. which records their dedication by Ashädhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kaáyapïya Arhats. At Junagarh,(Saurashtra) near Bava Phyära Maûha are a group of Jaina caves of the second century A.D. The Udayagiri cave No. 25 in Madhya Pradesh belongs to the fifth century A.D. The Bhadrabähu cave on Chandragiri hill at Shravana Belagolä is note worthy in the south. The Sittanaväsala cave in Tamilnadu belongs to the third century A.D. The Badami cave of the seventh century A.D. is also worth mentioning. There are the Jaina caves at Ahihole also. The Jaina caves namely Chotä Kailäsa, Indra Säbhä and Jagannätha Sabhä are the finest from the artistic point of view. The pillars and walls are exquisitely carved. The Jaina caves at Gwalior or the 15th century belong to theTomara period.

(iii) Temple Architecture : The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e .third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushäîa period, i.e. the second century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the Nägara, the Drävida, and the Väsara are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nägara style are cruci form plan and curvili near Áikhara and it was prevalent in the region between theHimalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dräviâa style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower, and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed.

Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage o fthe ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gangas, the Chälukyas, the Räshûrakütas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Áantaras in the South. "The Meghuti Jaina temple built in 634 A.D. during the reign of Pulakeáin II by Ravikïrti is said to be the oldest temple of Drävida style in the south. The important temple of this style is in Paûûakäla. The Jaina temples at Huvancha and Gudaunear Tirthahalli, Lakundi in Dharwad District, Jinanathapura, Halebid, Ganigitti, Tirumalalai, Tiruparuli, Kundarama,Tiruppanayura, "Mudabidri, etc. are noteworthy. Jaina temples built in Kerala region13 between ninth and eleventh centuries were of two main types - rock-cut and structural temples. Temples were also built in the Vijayanagara empire. These temples give an idea of the Drävida style of Jaina architecture of the south.

The Jaina temples of the Nägara style were built in large number in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Jaina temples of Devagarh, Gyaraspur, Badoh and Büâhï Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh belong to the Pratïhära period. The pillars, gateways and the walls of the temples are finely carved. The Mälädevï temple of Gyäraspur, which is partly rock-cut and partly structural, consists of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. The Jaina temple of Badoh with twenty-five cells was built between the ninth and twelfth century A.D. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Chandella period. These are lofty edifices without any enclosure and erected on a high platform terrace. Like the exterior, the interior of these temples specially doorways, pillar architraves and ceilings are richly carved with figures and intricate geometrical and floral designs. During theParamära period, Bhümija style became popular. The two Jaina templesof 11-12th century A.D. at Un are of this style. The carvings of these temples are of high order. At Bhojapur, near Bhopal, there are remains of the Jaina temple. The Jaina temples of Sonagiri,Muktagiri, Kundalpur and Mandu were built during the Muslim period.

In Rajasthan, the Jaina temple built in the eighth century A.D. at Osia during the reign of Vatsaräja is the oldest, and it consists of a sanctum, a closed hall and an open porch. it is famous for its carvings. The Jaina shrines at Kumbharia are noteworthy as some of them contain beautiful ceiling slabs. The two celebrated Jaina temples of Abu are the best examples not only of Jaina but Indian architecture. One dedicated to Ädinätha was built by a minister named Vimala in 1031 A.D. while the other was constructed by Tejapäla in1230 A.D. These temples are famous for the minutely carved decoration of the ceilings, pillars, doorways and niches. The Dhai din käJhoãpra seems to be originally a Jaina temple constructed by the Chauhäna ruler. Vigraharäja. The Singhïjï Kä Mandira at Sanganer belongs to the tenth century A.D. because there is an inscription of954 A.D. on the bandaraväla of the main shrine in the second hall of the temple. The Jaina temple of Áäntinätha at Jhalarapatan was built in 1046 A.D. by Säha Pïpä. The shrine and Áikhara of this temple are old. The Jaina temple of Lodorva near Jaisalmer is of the eleventh century A.D., and it's toraîadvära is elaborately carved and richly decorated. The Jaina temple of Räîakapur built in 1440 A.D. is the most complicated and extensive temple. There are twenty domes supported by about 1420 pillars and no two pillars are alike. Besides twelve in the central Áikhara, there are eighty-six cells of veryvaried form and size surrounding the interior, and all their facades more or less adorned with sculptures. The great Jaina temples of Chintamani Pärávanätha, Ôishabha, Áantinätha, Sambhavanätha andMahävïra in Jaisalmer constructed one after another in a period between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries are excellent. Profuse ornamentations in the shape of foliage, flowers birds and human figures were used in decorating every part of the pillar, arch,lintel or bracket of these temples. There are several old temples atÁatrunjaya and Girnar which throw significant light on the gradual development of art.

(iv) Mänasthambhas : The exquisite Jaina Mänastambhas are found atÁravaîa Belagolä Muâubidre and Kärkala. The Mänastambha of Devagadh is artistic. The Jaina tower known as Kïrtistambha of the 15 thcentury ar Chitor is 80 feet in height, and is composed of eight storeys. It is full of decorations.