The Structure of Jain Community

Mrs. N. R. Guseva

As is already indicated, the entire Jain community is divided into two sects-Digambaras and Shvetambaras.

Digambaras in their turn are divided into five subsects-bisapanthi, terapanthi, taranapanthi (or samayapanthi), gumanapanthi and totapanthi.

The difference between them consists mainly in observance or non-observance of one or the other fine point of ritual (thus, bisapanthi present flowers, fruits and sweetmeats to the images of Tirthankars and Terapanthi present only rice), but the first two subsects do not visit the temples of other subsects.

Shvetambaras have three subsects: pujera (or murtipujaka or deravasi or mandirmargi), dhundia (or bistola or sthanakvasi or sadhumargi) and terapanthi.

Pujeras dress up and richly adorn Tirthankars in their temples, their ascetics bind their mouths with white cloth but they can wear yellow dress. The dhundias have not got images of Tirthankars at all, and their ascetics wear only white. Terapanthi is rather a big subsect and strictly observes ascetism. They also do not worship the images of Tirthankars.
The spiritual life of all these subsects is led by the heads-Acharyas. Still petty groups, headed by their mentors-Acharyas-exist in the subsects. These groups are called sanghas and still smaller subgroups-gana, gachcha and sakha-exist in those sanghas. Contradictions and disputes constantly arise amongst them about various questions of ritual. Many groups have their own temples and separate schools for religious education of the young. These schools are called gurukulas or patha shalas.

Every group has its own ascetics. The interesting feature of the internal structure of these groups is the system of mutual control between laymen and ascetics. For breach of rules of conduct or prohibitions, not only the laymen but also the ascetics can be expelled from the community and this practically takes place sometimes in our days too. Even Shripujya (head of ascetics of a given group) can be expelled by its members.

Some such sanghas also arose which strove to even out contradictions inside the community and they elevated this to the level of their programme of religious teaching. Thus, the sangh, known as the yapya, existing in Andhra accepts, as the Shvetambaras do, the truth of canonic books and the possibility of salvation of women also, but like the Digambaras, it upholds the customary ritualistic nudity of body and all the rules prescribed for the ascetics.

As has been already mentioned, division into castes penetrated in the Jain community and the custom of inheriting the profession in each caste (mainly by the north Indian Jains) got partially established. Here it is quite in place to remember the words of Jawaharlal Nehru, which briefly and aptly characterise this process. It is exceedingly interesting and significant that during the stretch of a protracted segment of Indian history, the great people more than once warned against priest-hood and the rigid caste system, and strong movements took place against them. Nevertheless, as though it was predestined, castes slowly developed and almost imperceptibly spread and caught in their pernicious clutches all the spheres of Indian life . The rebels, rising against the old religion and which was in many respects highly distinctive from it, reconciled with the caste system as a result of which, it continues to exist in India almost as a branch of Hinduism.

As distinct from Hinduism, there are no rigid caste prohibitions or prescriptions in Jainism. No caste enjoys privileged position, even though a stratum of Brahmins proper has formed amongst Jains. Judging from the traditions which have come down from word of mouth and the works of Jain literature, a numberless subsects and castes arose mainly in the medieval period, commencing from the 2nd half of the 1st millennium. It is apparent that the historical process of settlement of the Jains in India, conversion of individual groups of population and also the process of adoption of the caste system by the Jain community was reflected in the rise of such petty subgroups in that community.

This idea is confirmed by the fact that the Jain tradition preserves the names of tens of preachers, who supposedly formed those groups and moreover, interpreted canon in various ways and prescribed different religious practices to their groups.

But the makers of the religious canons of Jainism, in no way expressed their own attitudes to castes and did not introudce any prohibitions or prescriptions in this connection.

Some of the castes of Jains are extremely small in number. Thus amongst the Shvetambaras, almost no caste (excluding the five strong castes) has more than 500 members. Amongst both the sects, there are some castes which consist of 10-12 persons each.

Notwithstanding the fact that not all the caste institutions were adopted by the Jains, the ideas about higher and lower position of this or that caste exists all the same. Thus many castes of the Jains are divided into two groups-visa and dasa. Scholars are unable to explain the origin of these groups, but it is certain that these groups are endogamous and that the position of the latter group is lower than that of the former. The members of the latter group are not even allowed to enter the temples in some places, even though untouchability practically does not exist amongst Jains.

Marriages of widows are allowed amongst the castes of visa group, while amongst the castes of dasa group, such marriages are prohibited. It is possible to assume that the dasa caste goes back genetically to those ancient groups of Jains which had their origin in the non-Aryan people, while visas have their origin in groups of Jain-Aryans, which were formed much later.

It is characteristic that marriages of members of visa castes with those of the dasa castes are prohibited, while marriages between the members of visa castes of Digambaras and Shvetambaras and equally between those of the dasa castes of both the sects are not censured.

In several castes of Western India, in which a part of members profess Jainism and another part, Hinduism, Jains as a rule belong to the visa group and Vishnuites belong to the dasa group. It is obvious that here members of higher castes were converted into Jainism in those times, when the rulers patronised this religion (as it happened, for example, in Rajasthan and Gujarat).

Marriages between such Jains and Vishnuites are allowed.

Jain castes, like the Hindu castes, are divided in exogamus group-gotras. Gotras are traced to kin groups and exogamy is observed rigidly to the present day.

Osaval (or osvala), shrimali, poravada (partially Digambaras) of the Shvetambaras castes and agarvala, khandelvala, paravara. Khumbada (partially Shvetambaras) of the Digambara castes are the most numerous ones in northern and western India. In south India, where practically all the local Jains belong to Digambara sect, such fractional division into castes does not exist amongst them. Here there are four big castes-saitavala (this caste is not in Mysore), chaturtha, panchama and bogara or kasara and three small castes-upadhyaya, kamboja and harada.
The Digambaras of the south do not marry and do not practically keep any connection with members of Jaina community living in all the other regions of India. Apparently ancient and deep differences divide this group from other Jains.

An interesting feature of the life of south Indian Jaina community is that here the priests are the high caste Hindus, tracing themselves to ancient Aryans, support patrilineal system of inheritance and while giving daughters in marriage give dowry, but the rest of the Jains have no such institutions. As distinct from priests, the rest of the Jains (so-called laymen) support most ancient customs, which are preserved even to this day by the Dravidian peoples (as by the hill and jungle tribes). Sister's son and not his own children inherit by right the property of the deceased.
Along with these survivals of matriarchal relations, Jains preserve the custom of payment of 'dahej' (bride-price) in monetary form and also in the form of presents and transfer of part of property to the father of the bride in conformity with the marriage contract.

Amongst the priests in the south, marriages of widows are prohibited and amongst the rest of the Jains, they are allowed (with the exception of regions towards the south of the city of Madras).

Marriages between priests and laymen are prohibited.

Each of the four big castes in the south is led by its own spiritual leader (bhattaraka) who, occupying intermediary position between ascetics and laymen, can individually resolve disputes between the members of the caste and expel from it whomsoever he considers it necessary.
The institutions of bhattarakas arose in medival ages amongst the Digambaras of north India and spread our from there wider and wider and flourished in southern regions.

In the course of several centuries, leadership of everyday life of the members of the community and control over their conduct and performance of religious obligations was concentrated in the hands of the bhattarakas. Specially trained students directly helped them.

But in course of time bhattarakas started to claim divine power, and came in conflict with one another, dragging in this enmity the groups, led by them and gradually exhausted their authority. Manifestations of dissatisfaction with the power of bhattaraka began. Thus the subsect of Digambaras viz. terapanthi appeared in the beginning of the eighteenth century in the form of a group, expressing its protest against this dominance.

Side by side with the temple-priests there is a chief village priest-gramopadhyaya in each Jain village. He as well as all the other priests-non-ascetics-can marry. But the head priest of the district-dharmadhikari-is an ascetic and all the priests of this district are subordinate to him.

All the priests and heads of the castes must see whether the members of the community follow the correct mode of life and observe the correct conduct. Great attention is paid to correct conduct, since it must ensure perfection of the soul on its path to salvation. The conduct of ascetics must be perfect-'sakala' and such perfection is not demanded of a layman (the mode of their conduct is called vikala).

Every Jain believes that his life consists of various stages of existence of his bodily envelopes and he must rationally satisfy the requirements of his body in conformity with each stage.

Entering into marriage is fully obligatory for all except ascetics. Marriages of Jains take place according to the selection by the parents, as is common with the members of other religious communities in India.
It was prescribed in ancient times, in conformity with the Jain philosophy, to give the daughter in marriage, soon after attaining puberty, since unproductivity is tantamount to murder and this stands in contrast with the doctrine on non-violence. That is why, child marriage was widespread in the community. Such marriages were stopped comparatively recently, after the Sarda Act in India about instituting criminal proceedings against person guilty of child marriage adopted in 1931 by the British administration was brought strictly in operation.
Special religious ceremonies are performed in connection with various incidents in life. Marriage is the most serious and important step in the life of a Jain and is accompanied by many rites. As distinct from Hindus, Jains do not consider marriage a god-pleasing act but a feature of service to society, since people who do not marry are subjected to all sorts of temptations. They remain childless, which undermines the principles of society's life.

As distinct from Hindus, Jains do not consider that it is preferable to have only sons who are supposed to perform funeral ceremonies, since they do not prescribe sacrificial offerings to the spirits of the ancestors and do not regard the cult of the ancestors as a path towards liberation of the soul.
The Jain canonical books do not support the prescriptions regarding marriage rites. That is why these rites widely depend on local customs.
If Hindu acknowledge eight forms of marriage, described in the 'Laws of Manu' (brahma, daiva, arsha, prajapatya, asura, gandharva, rakshasa and paishacha), the Jains regard only the first four forms as acceptable, because these marriages take place with the consent of the parents of the bridegroom and the bride. The Jains consider remaining four forms of marriage sinful, since the gandharva form of marriage takes place only with mutual consent of the young and the remaining three forms are connected with 'dahej' (bride-price) or with her forceful abduction (rakshasa). However, in ancient times, rakshasa form of marriage was widespread amongst Jains, from which once more one can venture to reflect upon the initial connection of this religion with non-Aryan peoples.
Most often marriages of brahma and prajapatya forms mean handing over of the bride to the bridegroom by her father in the presence of witnesses.

In the south of India, cross-cousin marriage is preferred and the very best form of it is the marriage with the daughter of mothers's brother, while in the north cross-cousin marriages are not recommended and not practised.

Until recently the form of marriage, in which there is exchange of sister was widely prevalent, but with the spread of western education it is almost forgotten, as it is at variance with the interests of girls.
Amongst almost all the families dowry is given for the daughter but among the lower castes of Jains, the asura form-a marriage with 'dahej' (bride-price-this form is often met with also among lower casts of Hindus) is practised.

All marriage negotiations must be confirmed by the panchayat of the caste.

In general outlines the marriage rites of all the Jains are similar.
Usually a month before the marriage, bethrothal takes place. On that day the father of the bride presents gifts to the father of the bridegroom in the presence of witnesses. Soon after this, the father of the bridegroom gives ornaments as gifts to the bride. On the marriage day both the fathers ask all those present whether they agree with the proposed marital union. Then the father of the bride joins the young couple's hands, asking them to observe all the precepts of the faith. As with Hindus, the marriage rite ends with the couple passing seven times round the holy fire and during this time, the couple takes on oath to lead a highly moral life and to be friendly. After completing the last of the seven circles, the marriage is considered to have been performed. This ceremony also indicates that the marriage is indissoluble. Marriage ceremony takes place everywhere in the home of the bride.

Polygamy is not rejected in Jainism but is very rarely found at present. While judging from references to this custom in Jain texts, it can be said that earlier it was much widespread. Usually the reason for bringing a second wife in the house is childlessness of the first wife or lack of vitality of her children. But her consent for her husband's second marriage while she is living is necessary. There are practically no divorces, though the usual right allows divorce, provided either of the couple detects secret defect of the other. Only in the saitavala and bogara castes in the south, divorces can be effected more or less freely.

As a whole, the position of women in the Jain community is never humiliating and although the rules regarding their entry into the nuns' order are stricter than those for men, it is considered all the same that women can even become Tirthankars and preachers of the faith (Digambaras consider that the 19th Tirthankar Malli was a woman).
In the sphere of education, chances for both boys and girls are almost equal, although girls are brought up more as housewives and would-be mothers than as specialists in some sphere of social activity.

It is worth emphasising that widows have the right to inherit husband's property-a fact testifying to the preservation by the Jains of the survivals of the high social position of women. According to Jain law, a widow has a right to inheritance, even though sons are born in marriage (there is no such right in Hinduism) and even the division of children's portions depends on the desire of the widow.

Jain religion prescribes performance of various ceremonies in the course of family life, directed to ensure satisfactory conception, normal development of foetus and satisfactory birth. Not earlier than twelve days after its birth, the child is named and special ceremonies are performed on this occasion. Special rites are also performed on the day on which the child starts to sit, on the day when it is given solid food for the first time, on the first birthday and on the day of commencing learning (at the age of 5). At the age of 8, children pass through the ceremony of dedication in the temple (this rite does not exist in Gujarat) and holy threads are placed through the shoulders of the children. This is also done amongst higher Hindu castes. The completion of learning at the age of 14 to 16 is also observed by special rite. After this, they are ready for marriage.

After having married, every Jain is obliged to think of good earnings, so as to support his family, to support the community, to help monks and to engage in philanthropy. This is considered as one of the reasons for engaging themselves in trade and enterprises.

After fulfilling all the obligations of family life, the head of the family passes through the rite of dedication to asceticism and after leaving home, can lead the mode of life of an ascetic, performing various rites and ceremonies prescribed in the holy book Adi Purana (ninth century A.D.).

For the Digambaras, fulfilment of 53 rites, or passing through 53 stages are prescribed. Death and access to heaven and descent on the earth, are considered such stages, which will enable a Jain to be born as a would-be Tirthankar and to gradually turn into arhata and secure full liberation-Moksha. Shvetambaras, in conformity with the holy book Achharadinakara (beginning of sixteenth century) must pass only 16 such stages, the last amongst which is death.

Digambaras and Shvetambaras burn the bodies of the dead, bathing and then wrapping them in new clothes before burning. The ashes are prescribed to be thrown in water, as in the case with Hindus. The nearest relatives of the dead are considered 'impure' for ten days.

There are no funeral ceremonies amongst the Jains of the north and the south but in Karnatak those ceremonies are performed one month in a year. In general, the Jain law prescribes mourning the death of an ascetic for not more than a minute, of Kshatriya not more than five days, of Brahmin not more than 10 days, of Vaishya not more than 12 days, and of Shudra not more than 15 days.

All these rites are performed in different regions of India with different degree of relativity, since for the most part, these rites were introduced in Jain practice in medieval period and were borrowed mainly from Hinduism.

Jains are liable to expulsion from the community for committing murder, adultery, falsehood, stealing and for amorous affairs with non-Jains.
Jain ascetics must lead the life of a wanderer, not living in one place for more than a month (only in the rainy season they can live in one place up to four months). They must move about only on foot and only during daylight. In the dark period of the day and night they must not walk and must not eat also, because being unable to see, they may crush or swallow some insect .

Amongst Digambaras, ascetics are divided in three classes, anuvrata, mahavrata and nirvana. To be an anuvrata, it is necessary to leave the family, to clean-shave the head, to give up holy thread and live at the temple. An anuvrata must dress himself in clothes of saffron colour and must always carry with him earthen vessel for alms. While moving about, he must sweep the road before him with a bunch of peacock feathers (so as not to crush some insects).

The mahavrata ascetics may wear only loin-cloth. The hair on his head are pulled out from their roots by his pupils. He must eat rice only once in a day on his palm.

The nirvana ascetic must be always nude, eat rice, placed in his palm by somebody and must not move after sunset. His hair is also pulled out from the roots by his pupils (for this custom, even the Buddhists ridiculed Jains, saying that they thus violate their own concept of not subjecting living beings to evil and pain).

Shvetambara ascetics differ in that they wear white dress, bind their mouths with white stripes (according to one explanation, so as not to swallow some insect, according to the others, so as not to profane air with their breath) and carry in their hands whisks on sticks to sweep the road. Monks and nuns must have their hair pulled out.

They must feed themselves on alms. Moreover, they must not ask for alms and wait until given voluntarily (they called this means of collection of alms , 'madhukari'). By this term they mean, they treat themselves like bees, which take very little honey without depriving the flowers of it, and yet finally gather enough quantity for themselves.

Members of Shudra caste cannot be ascetics.

Jainism does not prescribe ceremonial purification from sins, as is done in Hinduism. That is why Jains must avoid sin in the strictest manner. In as much as causing harm to living beings is regarded as the greatest sin, Jains are prescribed strict observance of extreme caution in all their work, especially household work, such as chopping wood, sweeping floor, cleaning vegetables, cleaning hearths etc.

Not only ascetics but many laymen also filter water through cloth, so as not to swallow even the minutest living beings, which may turn out in it and they do not move about with the coming of darkness.

See also:

The Structure of Jain Community (Article by Mahavir Sanglikar, discussing different facts of Jain community)

Important Jain Rulers and Their Contribution

Dr. P.N. Narasimha Murthy



Jinadharma Vasa Vadatt-amala vinayadagara-vadattu......... nanamahimeyolesegum charukarnata desam(1). So says an inscription dated AD 1408 from the famous centre Kuppatur in sorba Taluk of Shimoga District. Karnataka became a centre of various religions and cultures. The fertile land, fine climatic conditions and the wealth fully endowed by nature made people of this region to gracefully nurse every thing whether it be a religion, culture or anything of the like that entered Karnataka from time immemorial. In fact, no religion exception a few cults was born here; yet, Karnataka became a home of all the Religions of India which, in their own way, have contributed for the growth of a unique culture here. Jainism was one such religion as this, to enter Karnataka in the pre-Christian era and make it a second home for nurturing a culture. This is being echoed in the Kuppatur inscription.

An attempt is made here to describe the ethos of Jainism through the spectrum of political vicissitudes, the strong and colourful canvas of which spreads over a score of century.

A few scholars have worked on Jainism in Karnataka(2). A few others have written on Jalnism in South India(3). However, they inveriably deal with Karnataka in major part of their discussion. This indicates the importance that this religion had gained in Karnataka. Further, a number of books that have come out after independence dealing with the history and culture of Karnataka also deal with the ebb and flow of Jainism(4). The summum bonum of all these is narrowing down the differences and doubts as far as possible.

ENTRY OF JAINISM INTO KARNATAKAWhen Jairlism entered Karnataka, had been the matter of discussion for a long time. The generally believed account is that Jainism entered Karnataka as a result of the coming of Bhadrabahumuni with a sea of disciples alongwith the most celebrated disciple Chandragupta the great Mauryan emperor(S).

However, some scholars hold the opinion that the King was Samprati Chandragupta the grand son of Ashoka and not the grandfather of Ashoka(6).

While dealing with the problem of entry of Jainism into Tamil Nad scholars have suggested two possibilities-(l) from the Andhra region and (2) from Karnataka region(7). While referring to its antecedence it is stated that at least by 3rd century B.C. Jainism must have entered the Tamil country. Further according to Mahavamsa a Buddhist work of Ceylon, Prince Pandukabhaya built a house for the Nigantha Jotiya in the new capital city of Anuradhapura. it also mentions Nigantha Giri A chapel was built by the king in the same city for Nigantha Kumbhanda which was named after him(8).

Another Buddhist work Deepavamsa of Ceylon also mentions Nigantha Giri and his place of residence. (9)

According to P.B. Desai "The expression Nigantha occuring in the above account is a prakrit form of the Sanskrit term Nirgrantha which means a follower of the Jaina faith. The reign of king Pandukabhaya has been placed in the 4th century B.C. (from B.C. 377 to 307) and so the above events concerning the construction of a dwelling and a temple for the Nirgranthas in the capital should be referred to the early period of the Ceylon history".(10)

Scholars have accepted the Ceylonese Buddhist works as authentic. They are in no way 'pro-Jaina'. Hence the information provided in them is suggestive of the existence of Jainism in a well establishment manner in Ceylon long before the advent of Buddhism in Ceylon. This point is very significant not only with regard to Tamil country but also Karnataka. Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka tells us that there was no country where these (two) classes- Brahmanas and Sramana did not exist.(11) S.R. Sharma has correctly identified 'Sramanas' as Jainas.(12) Ram Bhushan Prasad Sing (R.B.P. Sing) terms this as 'misinterpretation' and says that it might refer only to the' Buddhist monk'. (13) Dr. Sing has only made a hasty conclusion forgetting the fact that Ashoka in his Edicts has used the term 'Sangha' to denote 'Buddhists'. In Karnataka Samana is Sravana i.e., Jaina. The example of holy town of 'Sravanabelagola' may be given here.

The coming of Buddhist missions under the leadership of Mahadeva and Rakkhita to Vanavasi (Banavasi) and Mahishamandala (Mysore) indicate the late entry of Buddhism to Karnataka. And by this time Jainism had made its mark in the Southern provinces as well as Ceylon.(14)
If Jainism has reached the Tamil land prior to 4th century B.C. as suggested by P. B. Desai(15) certainly Karnataka must have been the first ground for the nestling activities of the Jainas. Probably this factor must have prompted the Jaina Muni Bhadrbahu and his Royal disciple to choose the Southern most province of Mysore for their final sojourn.

Unlike Tamil Nad, Karnataka is bereft of Jaina epigraphical sources of pre­Christian era. Yet, the people of Karnataka had the knowledge of reading and writing which is vouchsafed by the availability of a good number Minor rock edicts of Ashoka spread over a vast territory from Gulbarga in the north to Chitradurga in the South. The paucity of Jaina epigraphs of this period may not be due to laxity of Jainas but possibly because of two reasons­

(1) The advent of Buddhism with strong proselytising zeal must have caused some sort of set' back to the slow penetration of Jainism. Samprathi must have come only to revitalise the already existing religion. Finally Jainism must have succeeded in pushing Buddhism towards east to the Andhra country and make safe Karnataka for itself.

(2) Those who worked for the wellbeing of the religion against any odds might have recorded it properly at least in Sravanabelagola if not else where. Sravanabelagola being the safest place (for we do not find any Buddhist influence there) for Jainism provides us epigraphs only from about the 6th Century A.D. onwards. May be that due to the callous nature of the people soaked with the zeal of building activities, wreckless quarrying of rocks in and around Sravanabelagola must have caused for permanent loss of an invaluable epigraphical wealth of pre and early Christian Era" As a reminiscent of the past, quarrying is taking place even now with scant respect for heritage.

After the Mauryas, Karnataka came under the sway of the Shatavahanas who ruled for over four centuries. The rule was no doubt eventful in many respects. Yet, Jainism has a few and far information of this period which otherwise a, dark age, was saved by the greatest of the luminaries-Kundakundacharya.

It is said that Pratishthanapura the capital city of the Shatevahanas was a strong hold of Jainism. The founder of this dynasty-Simuka became' of convert to Jainism and built many Jinalayas in the capital.(6) Excavations conducted by Dr. T.V.G. Sastry a few years ago at a place called Vaddhamano in the Guntur district of. Andhra Pradesh have brought to light what may probably be called a Jaina Stupa for the first time in the South. It belongs to the Shatavahana period. However, much of this period is yet to come to light.

THE KADAMBAS OF BANAVASI:The Shatavahana rule gave place for two important dynastics of Karnataka viz., the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Talakad. The first one began to rule over the western and northern parts and the other southern and eastern parts of Karnataka, Under their rule Jainism gets a clear picture with an expanding theatre of activities.
The Talagunda and Gudnapur inscriptions(l7) have totally set to rest the problem of the origin of the Kadamba royal house. Though Brahmanical in their origin the Kadambas paved the way for rejuvination of not only the Vedic religion but also of that of the Sramanas. Their inscriptions provide us a vivid picture of the various sects of Jainism, Many a times we get a doubt whether some of the Kadamba were jains.

In the very first year of his rule Kadamba Kakusthavarma makes a land grant to Senapti ( a Jaina) Srutakirti as a reward for saving himself. (18 ) The copper plate which informs us of this begins with Salutations to Bhagavan Jinendra and ends with Salutations to Rishabha, The gifted field was called 'ba(lo) Vara-kshetra'. The village of Kheta where the field existed' belonged to the holy Arhats who are stated to be 'the Saviours of the three world', The king made this grant while camping at Palasika (mod, Halasige in Belgaum Dt). On the basis of the dates assigned to each Kadamba King by B.R. Gopal (19) this copper plate may be placed in the year C. 405 A,D.
The Halmidi inscription(20) forms an important landmark in the history of Kannada language. However, from the point of view of our study it is still more important. All those who have read the inscription so far(21) have committed a mistake of reading wrongly line number 9 of the epigraph as- "namadheyan=asarakk=Ellabhatarya Premalaya". But the correct reading should be "namadheyan=asarak-Kella-bhatariya premahiya".(22) What had been read as Ella-bhatari is now corrected as Kella-bhatari. 'Kella' happened to be a very important subordinate ruling family under Alupas of Alvakheda, Kellas were Jains. The earliest Kannada inscription provides us information about one of the earliest Jaina ruling families of Karnataka. There are a number of families among the Jainas in South Kanara who even today possess the surname 'kella'. There is a village by name Kella Puttige in Karkala taluk of the South Kanara District which was once a strong hold of the Kellas. (23)

Halmidi inscription has been assigned to C. 450 A.D. and belongs to Kadamba Kakusthavarma. It we are to accept the date assigned C 405-430 AD(24) to Kakusthavarma by Dr. B.R. Gopal then the date of Halmidi epigraph also has to be re-adjusted, Tentatively its date may be fixed at C.425 AD instead of the present C 450 AD. It is thus clear that a small Jaina ruling family existed in the Kanara coast in the early part of the 5th century or at least by the second half of the 4th century A.D.

Mrigesavarma (C455-80AD) grandson of Kadamba Kakusthavarma was a very great patron of the Jaina religion. In his 3rd regnal year he made a grant of land for the worship of Arhats and the upkeep of the basadi at Brihat Paralur(25) (C 458 AD). His second Devagiri plates(26) issued during his 4th regnal year (C 459 AD) from Vaijayanti (Banavasi provides us a very important information regarding the state of Jainism in Karnataka. There existed the two important sects of Jainism viz. Svetapata-Mahasramana Sangha and Nirgrantha Mahasramana Sangha. The King made a grant of the village Kalavanga while dividing it into three parts and gave one each to holy Arhat God Jinendra, Svetapata maha Sangha and Nirgrantha maha Sangha.

In his 8th regnal year (C463AD) Mrigeshavarma built a Jinalaya at Palasika, as an act of merit for his father and granted 33 nivartanas of land for the Jaina ascetics of Yapaniya, Nirgrantha and kurchaka sects. The recipients of this grant were the Bhojaka Damakirti and the ayukta Jiyanta.(27)

This inscription informs in very clear terms that the king constructed the Jinalaya for the merit of his deceased father-Shantivarma. Though there is no source for' us to conclude that Shantivarma was a Jaina, the pious act of his son Mrigeshavarma indicates the leanings of his father towards Jainism.

Basadis existed at Palasika either before or right from the beginning of the Kadamba rule. And, the Kadamba kings, though of Brahmanical order, providing them with gifts and grants had been an usual affair. But constructing a basadi, that too in the name of their deceased one, is a matter of importance and for consideration.

The added importance of this Halsi copper plates is that it informs us of the existance of two other Jaina sects besides Nirgranthas such as Yapaniya and Kurchaka. The earlier record has mentioned about the Svetapata (Svetambara) sect. It is not correct here to sit in judgement on dividing a religion into several sects. However, nothing prevents us to know about the complete freedom that existed in Karnataka even in respect of religious thinking and following. It seems not only the Kadamba kings but also the royal family had intimate contact with the jaina society. Jaina munis and their Chaityalayas. Bhanuvarma younger brother of King Ravivarma (C485-519AD) made a gift of land of 15 Nivartanas at Palasika for the anointment of God Jina on the full moon days without fail. The gifted field was caIJed 'Kardamapati'. It was made during the 11th regnal year (C. 495-496 AD) of King Ravivarma. (28)

It seems that due to over enthusiasm, Dr. B.R. Gopal has tried to put things wrongly of Davanagere plates of Ravivarma of his regnal year 34. (29) Dr. Gopal has idendified Sarvajna and Sarvalokanath found in the invocatory, part with Buddha. Hence says: "the grant of land made by the King, at the instance of Haridatta, for the worship in' the Siddhayatana and for the increase of the Sangha both of which are Buddhist (and not Jaina as suggested by M.H. Krishna) institutions, according to Sircar". (30)

The relevant portion in line 16 of the Davanagere Copper plates reads "Asandyam=Aparajitah Siddhayatana-Pujartham Sanghasya Parivriddhaye". Here both Aparajita and Siddhayatana are Jaina. In the Jaina religion we come across sixteen 'Svargas' also called 'Kalpas'. Above these exist nine 'Graiveyakas'. And above this exist five 'Kalpatita deva Vimanas' i.e., the heavenly stages. The fourth one of this is the stage of Aparajita. Above this exists the stage of "Sarvaitha Siddhi". (31) This is the abode of the pure and liberated soul.

Similarly 'Siddhayatana', which is nothing but the abode of Siddhas.(32) 'Siddhayantana puja' happens to be an important item of worship in the basadis. Many Jaina inscriptions from South Kanara District speak of grants made for 'Siddha-Chakra aradhane' in the basadis.(33) Also we come across the term Siddha-Chakrada nompi.(34) 'Namo Siddhanam' is an important step of the famous 'Panchaparamesthi stotra mantra'. Further line 2 of this record reads­
"devanam = makuta-mani prabha = abhishiktam
Sarvajnassa - Jayati Sarva loka-nathah"

This may only mean victory (Salutations) to that pure and liberated soul which has attained the stage of 'Sarvarth Siddhi', the final of Kalpatita stage.

On this basis we conclude that the Devanagere plates of Ravivarma of the year 34 is a Jaina record, very unique in its way of expression.

This inscription refers to Asandya. It is same as Asandyaluru which has been mentioned as a centre of Jainism in the two Kadamba Copper plates of 5th century A.D. from Mudigere.(35) Asandyaluru was situated in Sendrakavishaya.

There are a few more records mentioning about the munificent grants to the basadies of Halasi and elsewhere and also to lay Jainas by the kadamba Kings (36). However, the Gudnapur inscription of Ravivarma(37) becomes very important in respect of our studies. (38) The inscription mentions that king Ravivarma built a Kama Jinalaya. The king's palace existed to the right side of this temple and on its left existed two nrityasalas (Dancing Halls) facing the Queens palace (antahpura). It also refers to a Kamadevalaya (Jinalaya) at Hakinipalli and to a temple of Padmavati at Kallili. This indicates that if not the king, at least the member of royal family, as we have seen above, were followers of Jainism. (39)

THE GANGAS:The long believed tradition is that the Gangas were Jains. But Dr. B. Sheik Ali disapproves of this.(4O) The two brother founders of this royal family (Madhava and Dadiga) were blessed by the Jaina muni Simhanandacharya. But Sheik Ali doubts whether there was any Jaina hand in the establishment of the Ganga dynasty (41)

He says that Konganivarma I (i.e., Madhava I) the first king of the dynasty led another expedition towards the Konkan coast about which it was not possible to throw much light due to paucity of sources. In this he quotes Lewis Rice who says that this expedition was a success and that a Chaityalaya was built near Mandali in Shimoga District. Dr. Sheik Ali writes: "We are in agreement with Rice that it was Konganivarma I who led the expedition to the Konkan Coast". However he is silent about the Chaityalaya i.e., a basadi built by the King (42) However, it is known to us from an inscription from Shimoga district(43) that Dadiga-Madhava, the founders of the Ganga family built a basadi near Mandali (in Shikaripur taluk). It was later on rebuilt in wood and called 'Pattada Basadi'. Sometime later it was again reconstructed now is stone (Kaluvesa). 44

It is not clear why Dr. Sheik Ali has ignored the second part while accepting the first part of the same inscription. Yet, he has questioned as to whether there was any Jaina hand in the establishment of the Ganga Royal family.

According to this learned author who has reset the geneology with dates, Konganivarma Madhava I, the first Ganga King ruled from AD. 350-370.(45) Hence, the basadi near Mandali in Shikaripur Taluk of Shimoga district must have been built during this period (say C. 360-365 AD).

It is said that Harivarma and Vishnugopa, delineated themselves from Jaina influence. But no harm had been done to Jainism. In fact, Jainism found under the Gangas of Talakad an ever increasing period of grace and grandeur which has left behind a testimony of everlasting nature in the forms of literature, art and architecture.

Though doubted earlier, Dr. Sheik Ali, while referring to the period of king Avinita, asserts that the hold of Jaina teachers on the Ganga rulers was quite strong. (46) The Jainamuni Vijayakirthi was the royal preceptor of Ganga Avinita. The king made gift of land to a Jaina temple (probably in Korikundavishaya) on the advice of this teacher. (47)

A very much interesting account comes from the Hoskote plates of Avinita. (48) It states that the mother of Pallava King Simhavishnu built a Jaina temple (probably at Korikundabogha) to which Avinita made a grant of land. The point here is why the pallava queen built a Jinalaya in the Ganga Kingdom when there seems to be no relationship between the Ganga king and the Pallava Queen mother. The basadi was built by this lady in memory of her husband and also to earn merit for herself. It is suggested that the most catholic and generous rule of the Gangas must have prompted for this act and the queen mother too might have hailed from a place in Gangavadi and a follower of Jainism. (49)

Here mention must be made of Avinitas Mercara grant. (50) It has been treated as spurious on the ground that it belongs to very late period (on the basis of the script) than it intends to be and mentions Akalavarsha Prithvivallabha and his minister.

The plates as such provide very correctly the genealogy of the Ganga dynasty upto Avinita and then mentions the date as 388 (may be Saka Era) corresponding to AD 466. It records a grant of Village Badaneguppe to Sri Vijaya Jinalaya at Talavananagar (Talakad). It is out of place to discuss the veracity of this record here. However, recent excavations at Talakad have proved the existence of a basadi of considerably an earlier date. Further excavations may prove the authenticity of the grant mentioned in the Mercara plates while providing important information about Jainism in the capital city of Talakad.

A copper plate inscription dated AD 808 Nov. 7 (E.C.III Ng. 278 Devanur) states that Kambhayya (s/o Rashtrakuta Dhruva) while ruling from Talavana nagara made a gift of the village Vadaneguppe to vardhamana guru of Konda Kundanavaya and Sirmalagegurugana Kambha made this grant at the request of his own son Shankaraganna for the service of the Sri.Vijaya Vasati at Talavananagara. Here the gifted village Vadaneguppe and Sri Vijaya Vasati are the same as Badanaguppe and Sri-Vijaya-Jinalaya mentioned in the Mercara plates.
On this basis a hypothetical conjucture can be made that Sri Vijaya Jinalaya existed even before Ganga Avinita who granted the village Badanaguppe to it (in AD 466). When Rashtrakuta Krishna I acquired some portions of Gangavadi by defeating the Ganga King Sripurush, the village Badanaguppe was again gifted to Sri-Vijaya­Jinalaya. The same village was again re-confirmed to the Basadi by Kambha.

Avinita's son and successor was Durvinita. Jaina muni Pujyapada was the royal preceptor. He is said to have built a basadi at Kogali in Bellary district. (51) Hereafter the Ganga kings building basadis and providing them with municificent grants become very common. Apart from the Kings patronising Jainism we find from Shivamara II onwards the Ganga kings distinguishing themselves as the real followers of Jainism. The entire Gangavadi refashioned itself to look like Kopana. The place Kopana had been the earliest 'teertha' of Jainism in Karnataka. (52) Sravanabelagola followed the suit. Today only Sravanbelagola has remained as the pride monument of Gangavadi.

The independent political power of the Kadambas ceased to exist with the rise of (their own subordinates) the Chalukyas of Badami whereas the Gangas provided a protective umbrella to the emerging imperial power. Durvinita took the initiative. Intimate relationship was forged by him. In course of time the Gangas had to lead themselves under dignified subordination. They has to share the political and military vicissitudes of the Chalukyas.

The change of imperial power from Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas was not taken seriously by the Gangas, because they saw no danger. However they began to receive shocks to the extent of being uprooted. The age-long dignity and royal prestige developed and enjoyed by them made them to resist very strongly the Rashtrakutas. Finally they succeeded in not only restoring their political status over Gangavadi but also protecting the Rashtrakutas against the Chola invasions. Many of the great military achievements of the Rashtrakutas against the Cholas were practically the achievements of the Gangas. Their religion Jainism in no way became an obstacle in carrying out successfully their political and military activities.

The coming of Chalukyas of Kalyana to power really had a very bad effect on the independence of the Gangas. The Cholas invaded twice Gangavadi in 1004 AD and in 1006 AD. They reduced the Gangas to their subordination. The Chalukyas regained it but for a temporary period. Gangaraja routed the Cholas and re-conquered Gangavadi but only in 1114 AD as Commander of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. He did not sit on the throne of Gangavadi. However, what a king could do was done by him to rejuvenate Jainism in Gangavadi. Inscriptions describe him in glowing terms as the one who transformed the entire Gangavadi into Kapana(53) by repairing all the ancient basad is of Gangavadi 96,000 and providing them with gifts of land and wealth for their sustenance. Punisamayya, another commander of Vishnuvardhana, also got renovated basadis in Gangavadi 96,000. (54)

Though it seems as if the Ganga contributions got mixed with those of the Chalukyas and Rastrakutas, distinctive features of the Gangas have been maintained in some important centres of Jainism such as Kambadahalli and Sravanabelagola.

Kambadahalli reknowned as a Jaina 'teerath' played a significant role in the socio-religious activities of the people of that region. (55) The influence and attraction of which was so great as to invite the attention of Saivas of Lakulisa-Siddhanta. The Saivas, having assembled in the basadi, called it 'Ekkoti Jinalaya' and presented to it five great musical instruments (Pancha-maha Sabda) including the drum (bheri). (56) The inscription which records this says at the end that those who (the saivas) do not accept this are sinners to Shiva. Elsewhere it is stated that it only denotes the influence of Saivas over Jainism. But it may not be so as the inscription doesn't record any change in the administrative set up of the Basadi. (57) 12th Century A.D. to which the record belongs was no doubt not safe for Jainism as it received stiff opposition from Savism. But Kambadahalli became an exception to it.

Sravanabelagola had been a maha teertha like Kopana eversince the dawn of Jainism in Karnataka.(58) The Gangas laid a solid foundation for its growth, so much so, that in their own life time they were able to carve and consecrate such wonderful images as that of Bahubali (Gommata Swamy). They earned religious merit by doing so while getting to the country international fame.

Perhaps no stone was left unturned and place without a temple being constructed. Almost every village in the Gangavadi 96000 got a temple and a Jinalaya. There was a popular participation of all groups of people including the royal family and their officers. So far no incident of religions discrimination or disturbance has been reported in the long and highly distinguished period of rule of the Gangas of Talakad. Language and literature both in Sanskrit and Kannada were enriched by the distinguished writings of the Ganga kings and their scholars. According to 'Kaviraja marga', the earliest available Kannada literary work of Srivijaya, some of the earliest writers in Kannada lived in Gangavadi and king Durvinita was one among them.

Jainism made a deep penetration into the Ganga Society. It was possible mainly because of the Catholic Policy and participation of the kings in the social and religious activities of the State irrespective of they being Jains; their good minded and intelligent subordinates and officers and above all the patience and perseverence of Jaina munis, the Sanghas and the like, who worked like bees for the efflorescence of Jainism.

The Jaina rite of Sallekhana was performed by numerous people and Sravanbelagola is replete with examples. Parsvanatha basadi in the Chikkabetta here has the earliest of the inscriptions and numerous inscriptions here are nishidhiges mentioing rites of Salle khan a and Sanyasana performed by laymen and women and saints. (59) Many of the members of royal family did not lag behind. Royal ladies like Pullavva and Pommabbe and Kings Nitimarga II and Narsimha III performed Sallekhana. Inscriptions give us the names of numerous Jaina munis and acharyas who had their influence on both the royal family and the people in general. Simhanandi, Vakragriva, Vajranandi, Viradeva, Vijayakirti, Pujyapada, Devanandi Vimalachandra, Toranacharya are but a few important names of the Jaina acharyas of Gangavadi.

There are instances of Jaina women becoming 'nuns' (Kanthis) in order to wardoff their 'karma' and hoping for 'moksha' in the next birth. Instances of they also performing Sanyasana and Samadhividhi are there. (60)

Influenced by the pious work of these people Prithvi Nirgunadhiraja, the Bana king constructed a Jinalaya called Loka tilaka Jinalaya at Sri Pura in Saka 698 (AD 776-77), the 50th regnal year of the Ganga king Sripurusha. The Ganga king gifted the village Ponnalli in Nirgunda vishaya free of imposts to this basadi. (61) Of hundreds of such instances, this is one only.

In fact Jainism was so much interwoven in society that it had become difficult to distinguish a Jaina from non-Jaina and vis-a-vis, Jainism had its first 'Golden Age' in Gangavadi under the tender care of ever memorable Ganga royal family.

THE CHALUKY AS inherited very much from the Kadambas and the Gangas. Jayasimha was the grandson of Ganga Durvinita and as officers under Kadambas the Chalukyas commenced their career.

The Chalukyas called themselves 'Paramabhagavatas'. But this did not disturb in any way the administration and very catholic religious policy. Religious freedom was so much that sometimes members of the royal family followed different religions. Chalukya Vinayaditya's daughter Kumkumadevi was a worshipper of Jina. She was married to the Alupa King Chitravahana who worshipped Shiva and has been hailed in inscriptions as the king of the Pasupatas.

Kumkumadevi built the famous Anesajje-basadi at Purigere, Alupa Chitravahana alongwith his queen participated in the consecration ceramony and requested his brother-in-law, emperor Chalukya Viajayaditya to provide the Chaityalaya with munificent grants, which was accepted and duly carried out by the emperor (62) (in the year AD 707), Munificent grants were made to Jinalayas and Jaina munis by the Chalukyas. Ravikeerti, the famous Sandhivigrahi of Pulakesin II built a Jinalaya on top of a hill at Aihole (the Meguti temple) to which the emperor gave generous grants, The famous Prasarti of Pulakesin II comes from this Jinalaya, Composed by the poet laureate Ravikeerti himself and is dated AD 634. (63)

The Chalukya catholicity is further exhibited in permitting the Jainas to excavate a cave temple alongwith the three brahmanical caves at Badami. This cave may be the earliest of the caves here. Similarly there is a cave Jinalaya at Aihole very close to the famous Ravanapahadi cave. The Chalukyas bequeathed this heritage to the Rashtrakutas.

THE RASHTRAKUT AS took a step forward in not only patronising Jainism but also following it. Their capital Mulkhed (Manyakheta) seems to be a very ancient centre of jainism. According to Haribhadrasuri, the author of 'Samyaktva Saptati', Mulkhed and its neighbourhood was inherited by a fairly good number of Svetambara Jains as early as first century AD. (64) Govinda III made a grant to the Jaina teacher Arikirti disciple of Vijayakirti. His brother Kambha as governor of Gangavadi made grants to Jinalaya and Jaina teachers. Amoghavarsha I was a great patron of Jainism. He became a follower of Jainism during the latter part of his rule and patronised the great Jaina acharyas such as Jinasena and Gunabhadra. These Acharyas wrote Adipurana and Uttara purana respectively.

King Krishna III married a Ganga princess named Chandiyabbe. She constructed a Chaityalaya at Nandavara (in Adoni taluk) and made munificent grants to it in AD 932. (65) Their son Indra IV performed Sallekhana. (66) Pushpadanta the author of Mahapurana and Indranandi author of Jvalamalini-Stotra were patronised by Krishna III. Besides Malkhed, Bankapura was an important centre of Jainism. However, it is Ellora which is still maintaining the grandeur of J ainism of the Rashtrakuta time with its very beautiful cave Chaityalayas. Of these mention must be made of Chota Kailas, Indra Sabha and Jagannatha Sabha.

The Chalukyas of Kalyana followed Saivism. However, patronage to Jainism continued. But during 11th and 12th centuries Jainism had to face a severe opposition from Saiva Saints like Ekantada Ramaiah and others. The Jaina Munis and Scholars failed to conduct successfully disputations against the Saiva saints. The religion lost its moorings in the northern parts of Karnataka. Most of the Chaityalayas were converted into Shivalayas. The religion paid very dearly because of the laxity of its elite.

Waves of Shock reached the Hoysala Kingdon in the South. However, here the shock was very well absorbed with a little damage to the religion Jainism.

The Jaina origin of the Hoysala dynasty is very well known. Sala, Nripakama, Vinayaditya, Ereyanga and Ballala I were devout Jains. Most of their subordinate rulers were Jains. The damage done to Jainism due to Chola invasion was properly repaired by all these people.
Bittideva's conversion certainly had some effect on the smooth going of Jainism in the long run. It is not correct to say that Vishnuvardhana himself persecuted the Jains.(67) His famous queen Shantala and the victor of the Talakad battle Gangaraja were Jains. It is said above that it was Gangaraja who converted the whole of Gangavadi into a kopana by repairing numerous basadis of the region.

He founded the village Jinanathapura, built a Chaityalaya at Sravanabelgola in the name of his mother and constructed the huge enclosure wall around the statue of Gammata over doddabetta. (68) The sons of Gangaraja gave munificent grants and even constructed basadis the important of which was Parsvanatha Basadi at Dorasumudra. it was renamed
'Vijayaparsvanatha' by Vishnuvardhana. (68A) The two brother Mariyane and Bharatimayya who were ministers and commanders of Vishnuvardhana followed the policy of Gangaraja in rejuvinating Jainism. (69)

Queen Shan tala constructed basad is and performed Sallekhana. (70) Punisaraja dandadhipa (Punisamayya II) another Commander of Vishnuvardhana built a Trikuta­Jinalaya named Punisa-Jinalaya in Arikottara (modern Chamarajanagara). He also got renovated the basadis in Gangavadi 96000. (71) Chattaraja, another commander of Vishnuvardhana, alongwith his brother Chavana created two basad is as 'Parokshavinaya' to their mother-Kamavve at Herjjadi. (72) Vishnuvardhana himself made grants to Poysala-Jinalaya constructed by the dandanayaka Vinayaditya. Prabhachandra Siddhantadeva received the grant. (73)

The tradtion of tolerance was continued by the successors of Vishnuvardhana. Besided giving grants and repairing the old basad is, new ones were created and tanks excavated and attached to them. (74)

However, in later times we find some basadis being converted as temples of either shiva or Vishnu. (75) and villages renamed and converted as agraharas. (76) It seems that the royal partronage accorded to Srivishnavism was misused to a cetain extent. The dispute between them and Jains of the empire attracted the attention of the Vijayanagara emperor Bukka I who decreed that there was no difference between the Vaishnava and Jaina creeds and that the Vaishnavas should continue to protect the Jaina creed. (77) Imperial protection to the Jains continued in later years also (78). But Jainism had suffered very much. It had lost its strength on its own to stand strong and independently.

From Ganga Kadamba period to that of the Hoysalas Jainism had an upper hand becasue of its strong influence over the ruling families including their officers and Samantas and faced little competition from the Brahmanical section of the society. Quite a good number of minor ruling families such as Rattas of Saundatti, the Sendrakas, the Silaharas, the Guttas of Guttal, the Nolamba pallavas, the Mannera Masalevade chiefs, the Nidugallu chiefs, the Banas the Banas of Khanda­vamandala (Kopana), the Kongalvas the Santaras and the Changalvas were followers 0 Jainism (79). Even the merchant guild of Aihole-Vira Bananjus were followeres of Jainism according to Dr. P.B. Desai. The territory of these rulers has spread over a wide area comprising of territories 0 Maharastra, Andhra and Tamilnadu bordering the present state of karnataka. Fall of these dynasties, the rise of a strong veerashaiva movement in the north and the entry of Sri-Vaishnavism from the Tamil country brought in the decline of Jainism.

Having lost its moorings in the plains Jainism fled fast down below the Ghats and into the Coast of Karnataka. The green clad hills and valleys of the coast provided a safe anchorage to the disturbed ship. Jainism witnessed another golden Age here.

Jainism entered the North and South Kanara districts of the coast during the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi. Referece to the minor ruling Jaina family of Kellas has been made already. The statement of Dr. R.B.P. Singh that South Kanara contains no important Jaina vestiges of the 5th-12th centuries A.D.(80) is totally wrong. For, we find sufficient materials to prove its existence here during this period. (81)

After the rule of the Alupas a number of dynastics began to rule independently the coastal districts of Karnataka. They were besides the Kellas, the Kadambas of Chandavara, the chiefs of Bilgi, Nagire and Haduvalli in North Kanara and the Bangas, the Chautas, the Ajilas, the Tolahas, the Honneya Kambalis, the Santaras and the Kalasa-Karkala rulers and a host of their Ballalas and Heggades. These were all Jains. Excepting a few, the rest had their hay days during the Vijayanagara period. The entire region had come under the perview of the Vijayanagara governors with headquarters at Mangalore, Barakur and Honnavar.

The Jaina ruling families of the coast enjoyed political autonomy. Excepting the Bangas, the Bhairarasus of Karkala and thaNagire chiefs the others ruled over smaller areas. Hence, lacked the much needed economic strength. Yet, they loved independence too much, This condition can best be campared with the ancient city­states of Greece. Wars arising out of Jealousy and mutual hatred, had been the common scene. They bacame an easy prey to the more enterprising and disciplined forces of the rulers of Keladi who began to occupy the coast after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire. Jaina activities ceased to exist by the middle of the 17th century and a few ruling families exist even today.

The Alupas, the earliest ruling family of South Kanara were followers of Saivism. Their close associates were the Kellas and the Santaras both being Jains. During the closing years of their rule we find the Alupas associating themselves with the Jaina Pontiffs of Mudabidere. (82)
Performance of Samadhi-vidhi by a certain uttamasetti during the 15th regnal year of Bammadeva Alupendra is recorded in an inscription of AD 1285.(83) Earlier to this, we get a lot of information regarding the matrimonial contacts of Alupas with the Chalukyas of Badami and. the Santaras, Alupa king Chitravahana's queen Kumkumadevis pious acts have been referred to already. Barakur has got a very beautifully carved piece of nishadhige stone belonging to this period. (84) This shows that Jainism existed here during the Chalukyan period to the extent of influencing people to take up the famous Jaina rite.

The Santaras who bagan to rule from Humcha (Shimoga District) have been described as "Patti-Pombuchcha Puravaradhesvara" in their inscription. For long time it was believed that Patti-Pombuchcha represents only the capital city of Pombuchcha (Humcha). Recent researches have proved that two cities are named here and Patti refers to Hattiyangadi in Kundapur Taluk of South Kanara and Pombuchcha is the same as Humcha. (85) This place Hattiyangadi had good contact with Purigere, And Hattiyangadi was and ancient place of Jainism in South Kanara.(86) The earliest of the Santara epigraphs obtained from Udiyavara belongs to this period. (87) Apart from political and military achievements, the Santaras have contributed in a very memorable way to Jainism in South Kanara, King Kundana renovated the famous Nemisvara Chaityalaya at Varanga. Jakala Mahadevi, the queen of Alupa Kulashekhara excavated a tank and made some grants to this Jinalaya. Varanga, then was equal to Mahateertha (Kopana). There were two more such teerthas such as Kurulikunda and Alevuru in South Kanara at that time. Varanga was a great seat of Jaina monks belonging to Meshapashana-gachchha. This pontifical seat existed here probably from the 8th century onwards. (88) What was once a Jaina maha-teertha with a Pontificate of upmost sacredity, is today a totally unknown and uncared place.

The Jaina rulers though fighting among themselves, gave very much attention to Jainism and made it to flourish. They kept their people in good humor by giving equal importance to their social and religious activities, They carried on with equal zeal, the building work of both basad is and temples. A new tradition developed as a result that no temple celebration was to take place without the presence of rulers. This continues even today. it is strange but a fact to know that each Jaina ruler had Shiva as their family god besides a Jina-teerthankara.(89)

The Saluva chiefs of Nagire and Haduvalli were devout followers of Jainism. Many members of the royal family performed Samadhividhi. They constructed Jinalayas and granted them munificently with land and wealth. (90) Bhatkala, Sangitapura and Gerusoppa have a number of monuments recalling to our mind the grand days of Jainism. The pontofical seat of Gerusoppa had to be shifted to Simhanagadde due to political calamities, The saluvas had given a lot of encouragement to literature, learning and education. The important Jaina poets of this place were Kotisvara, Adiyappa, Salva, Abhinava vadi-vidyananda Padmarasa, Bhattakalanka, Payanna and Samtiyya. (91)

Most of the places in South Kanara contain basadies. But the best of them are to be seen at Karkala, Venur and Mudabidire. Each one of them contain as many as eighteen basadis. The best among these are the Hosabasadi (Thousand Pille red Basadi) at Mudabidire and. the Chaturmukha basadi at Karkala. What can be achieved by the people under good guidance is better seen in the grandeur of construction of Hosabasadi (AD 1430-1461). Nagire King Bhairava, his queen and members of his family made munificent grants to it. The famous Bhairadevi-mantapa and the most beautiful Manasthambha here., stand as a testimony to their pious acts. The Karkala Chaturmukha basadi was a creation of king Immadi Bhairava in AD 1586. One another feather in the cap of achievement of Karkala rulers is erection and consecration of the famous image of Bahubali in AD 1432 by King Vira-Pandyadeva-Vodeya on a small rocky hill over looking a picturesque sight of a lake and the westen ghats.

The Ajilas, though a small ruling family have contributed a lot to heritage of Jaina art. Ajila Timmaraja has immortalised himself by setting up an image of Bahubali at Venur in AD 1604.
The Chaityalayas, the free standing images of Bahubali, the most beautiful and lofty manastambhas and the large and tall pillars in the basadies - all have attracted the attention of the international art critics. Creating things of beauty in hard granite is not possible. But the artists patronised by the Jaina Kings, have made it possibie here. The Jaina families who caused for the creation of these and of the like else where have immortalised themselves by their pious acts. (92)

When opposition to Jainism became strong elsewhere the two pontifical seats of Lalitakeertimuni and Charukeerti muni were shifted below the Ghats. Karkala became the seat of Lalitakeerthi Bhattarakas and Mudabidire became the seat of Charukeerthi Bhattarakas. The jwo Jaina mathas with their munis played an important role in the socio-religious activities of their region. They survive even today sans-grandeur. (93)

As a result of the encouragement and guidance of the Jaina acharyas and patronage of the kings this region was able to produce a number of Jaina Scholars and poets. Vrittavilasa, Kalyanakeerti, Yashaskeerti, Bahubali, Vardhamana, Rathnakaravarni, Chandrama etc., were some of the great poets of the time. (94)

Jainism has made an indelible mark on the culture of Karnataka. Idea of peaceful co-esistence, simplicity of life and food are Jaina contributions. Kannada literature developed only because of the efforts of the Jaina Saints and Scholars. In fact scholars have very clearly distinguished the early period as Jaina period in the history of Kannada literature. The numerous Chaityalayas that have spread round the State stand as a testimony of a religious discipline as well as the best of the examples of Jaina art. Sravanabelagola and its complex has now formed a part of national heritage. The spirit of Jainism reverberates in the hills of this ancient sacred mahateertha. The people, the Saints, the kings, officers, the laity and the like- who were behind these acts deserve our attention and remembrance. I humbly express my salutations to all these who caused for the grandeur of Jainism in Karnataka:

Development of Jainism outside Bihar

Mrs. N. R. Guseva

In ethnography it is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the third century B.C. i.e. since the time when Bhadrabahu a preacher of this religion and the head of monks' community came to Karnatak from Bihar.

But there also exists another viewpoint, viz. that Jainism was known here long before the arrival of Bhadrabahu and that he only infused new life in this old religion. The adherents of God Shiva knew and accepted from Jainism much. which was already known to them from religious teachings-ascetism, the yoga-asana posture, protection to animals. etc.

In the course of the first century A.D., Jainism spread along south India quite intensively and smoothly. It was widely known in the empire of Satavahanas (whose fall is dated in the third century A.D.) and availed the patronage of rulers of Ganga dynasties (second to eleventh centuries), early Kadamba (fourth to sixth centuries), Chalukya (sixth to eighth centuries), Pallava (fifth to ninth centuries) and other dynasties. Many rulers built Jain temples and monasteries and set up kitchens for feeding monks.

The modified Brahmanism, as applied to local conditions became during this period a widely known religious system. Departing from the worship of a majority of Vedic gods, and forbidding to a significant degree sacrifices of animal, Hinduism in the main adopted in this epoch the form of Bhagvatism (from Bhagvat-deity) i.e. the upper deities were set apart from the innumerable gods of Hinduism, as though they were the heads of the pantheon. Gods Shiva and Vishnu, became the chief objects of worship of Bhagvats in south India. And thus two main currents-Shivaism and Vishnuism-took shape in Hinduism.

This was the early epoch of bhakti, the religious movement in Hinduism, calling for unlimited, self-renouncing love towards the deity Shiva or Vishnu.

Bhakti-Shivayats (i.e. the fanatic adherents of Shivaism) known by the name of Nayanars and Bhakti-Vishnuits (Alvars) composed hymns in praise of these gods. These hymns serve for the historians as a great and extremely interesting section of literature of the early Middle Ages in south India.

From these sources it can be seen that enmical relations sprung up between the Jain community and Bhakti-Hinduists in the south towards the middle of the first millennium A.D.

The Jain religion-preachers founded a monastery in the district of South Arcot (modern stated of Madras), and named it Pataliputra-evidently in memory of one of the northern strongholds of this religion. The monks in Pataliputra converted a wide strata of local population into Jainism, including several strong rulers of south Indian states, as for example, Mahendravarman of the Pallava dynasty (beginning of the seventh century A.D.).

This monastery was not the only influential centre of Jainism in the south. The Jain monasteries in Puhar, Urapur, Madurai and in a number of other places in south India acquired fame in the first half of the first millennium A.D.

It is evident that rivalry due to influence of the Jains on the rulers and also due to economic benefits (struggle for land, donated to monasteries and temples for rich contributions etc.) served as one of the reasons for the enmity between the communities.

The fight between the Jains and the Bhakts sometimes led not only to public disputes (in those disputes, the defeated were to adopt the faith of the winner) or to contests in demonstrating 'miracles' but also to mass executions of Jains, instigated by the Brahmin advisers who had influence on the rulers.

There is evidence that in Maharashtra, the Jains were subjected to fierce attacks from groups of local population, led by persons known by the name of Bhairavs. This name shows that those groups of population were evidently 'Shaivas' since the word 'Bhairav' is one of the names of Shiva.

In the temple of goddess Minakshee in the town of Madurai (state of Madras) there are frescoes on which mass execution of Jains are carved. Here, even at present, on the day of annual festival of this goddess, a picture of a Jain, impaled, is carried in procession.

The chief reason for such enmity was those social-economic changes, which made their appearance with the development of feudal relations. There are no indications of such intense enmity between the communities until the beginning of the Gupta epoch. New social strata (and first of all, feudal rulers) rising in Gupta epoch, and after that epoch i.e. in the period of growth of feudalism, made reformatory Brahmanism-Hinduism, its own ideological banner. This was Hinduism in the form of the early bhakti. It meant adherence only to supreme god. And then started active attacks on the bearers of the old forms of ideology which was attended by those social-economic relations, destined to disappear from historical arena, since they were closely tied with the epoch of formation of class relations.

The victim of this fight was Buddhism, which could not adopt itself to new social-economic conditions and was practically forced out from India towards the eighth-ninth centuries A.D. Jainism, as a religious faith, distinguished itself by its great simplicity and closeness to practical life of the people. It also probably possessed in a greater measure, roots stretching into the thickness of the faiths of ancient peoples and therefore could withstand this conflict.
It is certain that Jain preachers (Acharyas) ordained the members of the community to adhere to the customs of every people, amongst whom they lived (if only these customs did not happen to contradict the basic principles of Jainism). Thus two types of religious-ritual practice came into being in case of every Jain. Those types were 'Laukika' (worldly), practical and 'Paralaukika' (only for the soul). Not only pilgrimage, but also productive activity formed part of the Laukika.

It is difficult to say whether there was common profession for all the members of the ancient Jain community. All the tasks connected with the destruction of living beings or with causing harm to them were considered as prohibited. That is why Jains reject for example, agriculture, assuming that while ploughing fields, one caused harm to various living beings. But precisely in which period Jains rejected agriculture is not known. Evidently this religious teaching, mainly spread in the environments of cities even in ancient times.

In Karnataka, there existed only one caste called 'Chaturtha' amongst the Jains. This caste is engaged in agriculture. This might call forth the suggestion that members of some strong agricultural caste of a given locality sometime adopted Jainism and continued to engage themselves with agriculture because it was difficult for numerically big groups of people to change the profession in a short time and to settle in the towns for the occupation of trade or usury.

Proceeding from the fact that the activity of trading and usury is the traditional occupation of the Jains in the course of many centuries, it is possible to assume that Jains concentrated on this occupation all their efforts in the period of the blossoming of feudalism. If the Jain-monks lived in the monasteries and cloisters outside the cities, then the Jain-laymen were mainly concentrated in cities. Evidently, the high degree of their influence on many rulers can be explained precisely by the fact that they granted big loans and financed one or another enterprise.

The epoch of early feudalism, development of handicrafts and trade must have objectively facilitated the consolidation of Jainism and helped it to withstand the blows from the side of Hinduism.

Already in the Gupta epoch, many cities (Mathura, Vallabhi, Pundravardhana, Udayagiri, Mysore, Kanchi and others, in which handicrafts and trade flourished) were well known as big centres of Jainism. In the year 453 A.D., an all-Jain synod was convened in the city of Vallabhi for amending and fixing canonical texts. This testifies to the fact that this religion had consolidated itself in the early Middle Ages and it had spread in south and west India. During this period, many commentaries on these texts were written, forming a great section of Jain literature.

However, development of feudalism (and in the sphere of ideology the process of formation of Hinduism) was inseparable from the development and consolidation of caste structure. The Jain community adopted this feature of social-economical and ideological life of India and gradually castes, adopting many restrictions and prohibitions, which existed in Hindu castes took shape in Jainism also.

The ability of the Jain community to adopt to changing historical conditions can be explained by the well known liberalism of Jain canon and the entire structure of the community. Jain preachers did not oppose changes, which time introduced in the organization of the community. As also in antiquity, the community did not shut its door to anybody.

The significant reason for the formation of Jain castes in this period was the mass conversion of Hindus to Jainism in those states, the rulers of which, gave patronage to the Jain community or themselves became Jains. These newly converted preserved within the framework of the new religion their previous tenor of life, based on caste-structure.

The division of the community into castes, finally taking place mainly in the thirteenth-fifteenth centuries added to the division into four varnas, which had already orginated in the ancient (in Bihar) period of development of Jainism. Jain castes proper arose in the main according to the local indications-according to the place of settlement of one or another group of Jains. This is corroborated by the fact that the place of formation of many Jain castes is definitively known. This place is the cities in an overwhelming majority of cases.

In north and west India, merging of Hindu and Jain communities was especially active. Here in the edifice of many Jain castes, there are groups, professing Vishnuism, and in the edifice of many Hindu castes, there are components which are registered as jains. In the south, its own castes were formed in the Jain community, and those castes as a whole, fell apart from the Hindu community

Here the names of Jain castes are not met with in the edifice of Hindu castes. Possibly this shows that the process of formation of Jain community in the south took place on the basis of greater isolation from Hindu community, in which, as is known, the early Bhakti sect attained high development. In this, the struggle between communities, which is referred to above is also reflected. The struggle did not cease even in the first half of the second millennium A.D. It is known that Jains complained to the ruler of Vijaynagar, Bukkarai about oppression from the side of Vishnuits and he commanded in 1368 both the communities to end enmity and to profess their own faiths peacefully.

Southern Jains do not have recourse to the services of the Brahmins, as Jains from the north and west do, and have their own Upaddhyayas (priests) serving within their own community.
In the ninth-fifteenth centuries the south Indian Jain-Digambaras were called 'Panchamas' (the fifth) i.e. those who are placed outside the framework of the four varnas of Jainism. It is true there is another interpretation of this name and that is that in the fifth group amongst Jains, there are only those members of the community who acknowledge marriages of widows because of which other groups of Jains regard the pancham as the 'lowest' group. In order to free themselves from their low position, many panchams merged into Shaivaite sect of Lingayats, who did not acknowledge the caste restrictions.

It is considered that much of the ethical teaching and philosophy of Lingayats is borrowed from the Jains. The majority of Lingayats, as also the Jains, are traders and usurers, which fact serves as direct confirmation of extensive conversion of Jains into Lingayats. In the course of several centuries the Jains and the Lingayats lived together peacefully but in the sixteenth century, during the rule of Raya dynasty in Vijaynagar, conflicts took place between them. Thus Krishnadeo Raya ordered severe punishment to the head of the Lingayat community, becuase he killed several priests of the Jain sect of Shvetambaras.

One can see all-around in the south, the statues of Tirthankars, and Jain temples, testifying to the extensive spread of their religion here over long period of time. In various regions of south India, centres of Jainism were formed but the chief amongst them was the centre in Shravanbelgol in the State of Mysore (where, according to legend, Bhadrabahu who came here a short time before his death, died).

From the thirteenth century Jainism in south India started to decline. In this period anti-feudal movement, the religious ideological expression of which was the teaching of Bhakti (especially the Vishnuite bhakti) started growing. It embraced wide strata of the rural population and the urban handicraftsmen. This movement was so extensive that many representatives of other religious communities joined it. A great number of Jains turned to Vishnuism and the Jain community not only decreased numerically but also lost its influence.

Finally, the Hinduised rulers of south India States ceased to patronise the Jains.
During the period of Mohammedan conquests and especially after the fall of Vijaynagar empire (end of sixteenth century) the Jain community in the south practically lost all its positions.
In north India Mathura, Ujjain and Rajputana were the centres of Jainism (mainly of the Shvetambara sect) in the medieval period. Mathura, was since a long time, a trading city and during the rule of the Satavahan dyansty it turned into one of the main centres of trade with the western countries. Here Jain merchants concentrated, generously subsidising the erection of Jain monasteries and temples in the course of many centuries.

In the north and the north-west, as also in the south, conflicts sometimes flared up between Hindu and Jain communities. The incidents of destruction of Jain temples and their alterations as Hindu temples are known. Also incidents of persecutions and executions of Jains are known.
During the rule of the Mohammedan dynasties, Jains were not subjected to persecution. This can be explained by the fact that they held in their hands many key positions in taxation -fiscal department, in trade and usury and also gave loans to the Moghuls. Jains were rich and influential and precisely in this period built from their own resources richest temples, in Rajputana and Gujarat, which are famous in the whole world. The Jains profited by the patronage of many Rajput kings and were ministers at their court. These Jains who were engaged in trade and usury in Rajputana and Gujarat formed the basis of the communities which was later known by the name of Marwari (from the place of its formation-Marwar).
They did not only engage in trade, usury and in granting big loans to Rajput feudals but also in collecting taxes in buying up handicraft products, in extensively transporting and re-selling and in granting credits in other regions of India and in other similar operations.

jainism in south India history & its cruel conversion to Hinduism

By Unknown

Jainism has always held a predominant position in Karnataka.The history of South India is the history of Jains, Jainism and Jain dynasties. The Gangs, Kalabhras, Chalukyas, Rashtrakuts, Kadambs, Kalchuries, Hoysalas, Shilahars, all the great dynasties were followers and patrons of Jainism.

Kalabhras attacked and defeated Tamil Kings who were persecuting JainsKumarpal king (solankhee ) ( from Chalukyas dynasty ),was disciple of Jain Acharya Hemchandra. He became a king by defeating his enemies under guidance of the Jain Acharya.

Bijjal was a Jain king of Kalchuri clan in Northen Karnatak. Basaveshwar, his Bramhin commander in chief killed Bijjal and tried to become a king. There was civil war between Jains and Veershaivs. Jains caught Basaveshwar in a narrow street, but he escaped and suicided by jumping in a well.

Asatkhan, Commander of Badshah of Bijapur had destroyed many Jain temples and converted some to masjids in North Karnatak. As a result Asatkhan was killed by a young Jain.
The Kerala jain Story: by Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University
Prince Ilango Adigal, the author of Shilappadikaram, is a Jain. The Jains came to Kerala with the rest of the Chera immigrants starting in the sixth century. The only evidence of their presence in Kerala is the incontro-vertible fact that some Hindu temples of today were originally Jain temples.

In Matilakam was a famous Jain temple which Hindus shunned as late as the fourteenth century according to Kokasandesam, though at present it is a Hindu temple. Today, the presiding deity of Kudalmanikkam Temple near Irinjalakuda is Bharata, the brother of Rama; originally it was Bharateswara, the digambara Jain saint. Kallil, near Perumbavur, has a rock-cut cave in which we can still see the images of Parswantha, Mahavira, and Padmavati; the local Hindus worship Bhagavati in this temple today. Several places in wynad have Jain temples -an indication that North Malabar was once a flourishing center of Jainism.

Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim mosques of North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain temples.

I may add here that there are some old Jain families in the Wynad-Kasargod area even today. also check : www.hindubooks.org/temples/kerala/Introduction/page4.htm

The Jain Legacy In KarnatakaJainism in Karnataka flourished under the Ganga, the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Jainism prospered like never before and what we see today is the exquisite creativity that flowered under these dynasties.In the course of time other kings followed Jainism, notably those of badami and Halebid. A time was there in written history that jainism was a karanataka whole states religion.

The first Kannada poet, Pampa, was a Jain himself. Poets Ranna, Ponna, Janna and Lakshmeesha, who all enriched Kannada literaturee, were Jains.

The Jain legacy in Karnataka can be traced back to a great event that occurred in 297 BC when Chadragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, abdicated his throne and came to Sravanbelagola in Karnataka to become a Jain ascetic at the instance of his mentor, Bhadrabahu. He breathed his last at this Jain centre and the place where he is said to have sought recluse is appropriately name Chandragiri. A basadi (Jain monastery or temple) at Sravanabelagola also carries his name. In a number of later records he is referred to as Pradbha Chandra Muni.
Soon thereafter the Jain church exhibited a steady growth and succeeded in firmly establishing itself as a vital and powerful force due to its doctrines and asceticism, morality and ahimsa (non-violence). With such lofty notions, Jainism enjoyed the highest repute among the people particularly the ruling classes and the mercantile community thus virtually becoming the state religion. Imbued with an intense religious feeling, lavish patronage was extended towards the building of basadis, temples and magnificent statues. An epoch of literary activities also ensued.
The earliest dated structure is a basadi at Halasi built under the Kadamba dynasty of Banavasi thus laying the foundation for Jain architecture in Karnataka. Besides the Kadambas, dynasties such as the Gangas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas made liberal endowments towards the propagation of art and architecture to which the Jain contributions have been of classical significance. The Chalukyas of Badami built cave temples at Badami and Aihole. Puligere was a strong centre of religious activities of the Jain monks during this era. Many Jain basadis erected by them are proof of their secular spirit in encouraging this religion. However, it was the reign of the Gangas of Talkad and the Rashtrakutas, that were very noteworthy in the annals of Jainism.
Jain architecture can be classified into two categories namely basadis and bettas. Basadi is a Jain monastery or temple where an image of one of the twenty-four tirthankaras (saints) is installed and worshipped and most of them are located in Sravanbelagola. They were built in the Dravidian style and the oldest basadi can be traced back to the 8th century AD. Betta is a hill with an open courtyard containing the image of Gommata or Gommateswara. These hills form a special feature of the native art and the most outstanding examples can be found at Sravanbelagola, Karkala, Venur and Mudabidri in south Kanara district. The image at Karkala is nearly 42 ft tall and was erected in 1432 AD, the details of which are described in the work Karkalada Gommateswara Charite by Chandrama. The statue at Venur was set up in 1609 AD and is 35 ft in height. Mudabidri, which is hailed as the Kashi of the South has eighteen basadis, the most important of them being the Tribhuvana Tilaka Choodamani Basadi. Completed in circa 1430 AD after about 50 years of painstaking craftsmanship, this basadi has one thousand exquisite carved pillars each embellished with different designs and with no two pillars alike. The sanctum possesses an image of Chandranatha which is more than seven feet in height and is made of five alloys. In addition, the temple has an invaluable collection of dazzling icons of Jinamurthis made out of translucent marble, raw emeralds and other semi precious stones which, when illuminated, create an ethereal effect. There is also an attractive Manasthamba, the free standing pillar, and a bronze Sahasrakoota Mantapa adorned with over 1000 images of Jinamurthis and 32 hanging lamps. Apart from the above, Lakkundi and Humcha have, over the centuries, been some of the important centres of Jains, in South India. Replicas of the statue of Gommata can also be found at Gommatagijri near Mysore and at Basti, Hosakote and Tipur near Mandya. Panchakuta Basadi in Nagamangala taluk of Mandya district has a group of seven shrines that are considered the oldest Jains monuments of the State.

However, the most magnificent among all Jaina works of art is the colossal rock cut statue of their saint Gommata at Sravanbelagola. It was built in circa 982 AD and is described as one of the mightiest achievements of ancient Karnataka in the realm of sculptural art. Also referred to as Lord Bahubali, the image is nude an stands upright in the posture of meditation known as kayotsarga, reaching a height of nearly 57 ft atop the Vindyagiri of Doddabetta hills accessible through a flight of 500 steps. The image of Gommata has curly hair in ringlets and long, large ears. His eyes are open as if viewing the world with detachment. His facial features are perfectly chiseled with a faint touch of a smile at the corner of his lips and embody calm vitality. His shoulders are broad, his arms stretch straight down and the figure has no support from the thigh upwards. There is an anthill in the background which signifies his incessant penance. From this anthill emerge a snake and a creeper which twine around both his legs and his arms culminating as a cluster of flowers and berries at the upper portion of the arms. The entire figure stands on an open lotus signifying the totality attained in installing this unique statue. Amazingly, inspite of being constantly exposed to weather elements, the image has remained as new as ever.
On either side of Gommata stand two tall and majestic chauri bearers in the service of the Lord. One of them is a yakshi and the other one is a yakshi. These richly ornamented and beautifully carved figures complement the main figure. Carved on the rear side of the anthill is also a trough for collecting water and other ritual ingredients used for the sacred bath of the image. Around the statue is an enclosure of a pillared hall where one can find 43 images of tirthankaras in different cloisters. There is also a figure of a woman called Gullikayajji sculpted with a good built and wearing exquisite ornamentation, typical of the sculptures of the Ganga period. The Akandabagilu or the massive door, carved out of a single rock with an elaborately carved Gajalakshmi in her typical posture flanked by two elephants, is another meritorious work of Jain craftsmanship. This also said to have been under the guidance and inspiration of Chaundaraya, the illustrious minister who served under the successive rulers of the Gangas namely Marasimha II, Rachamalla IV and Rachamalla V.

One of the largest temples in the area is the Chaundarya Basadi dedicated to Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara depicted under a seven hooded canopy and flanked by male chauri bearers. This temple is unique in its style. It belongs to the era of the western Gangas and is evolved out of the Chalukyan styles at Badami and Aihole. One the same hill can be seen the Chandraprabha Basadi dedicated to the 8th tirthankara by the same name. It is one of the oldest basadis on the hill and can be assigned to the early 9th century under the reign of Sivamara, a Ganga king.
While at Sravanbelagola one can also gain insights into Jaina mythology through some of the finest paintings depicted on the walls of the Sri Jains matha. Rich in colours and harmonious in composition, these paintings of the 18th century depict royal processions and festivities, monks, women in brightly coloured sarees, forest scenes of wild animals and other topics that shed light on the domestic, religious and social life of the people. Of particular significance is the durbar (court) scene of Krishnaraja Wodeyar indicating the warm relations that the Wodeyars of Mysore enjoyed with this holy pilgrimage.

Another concrete expression of the intensity of Jaina art is the sthambha, the free standing pillar in front of every basadi. Elegantly carved out of granite, these are classified as Brahmadeva Sthambha and Manasthambha. While the former portrays the figures of Brahmanical gods, the latter is depictive of Jaina faith. Manasthambha pillars can be found elsewhere in the country but the Brahmadeva pillars are restricted to the South, a fine specimen of which can be found in front of the gigantic statue of Gommata at Sravanbelagola. Extremely attractive is the Manasthambha at Mudabidri with a small shrine at the apex surrounded by four bells and topped with a gold finial. Such pillars at Karkala and Humcha are equally eye-catching. All these pillars, irrespective of their connotations, are exquisite pieces of art, elegance and decoration. Another pillar of immense interest is the Tyagada Brahmadevara Kamba at Sravanbelagola where Chaundaraya has inscribed his genealogy and his life time achievements. Only segments of the inscription are readable.

The achievements of Chaundaraya are indeed stupendous. Filled with visions of Jaina unity, he was instrumental in carving out the statue of Gommata, one of the engineering marvels of the world at Sravanbelagola. A great scholar, he was the author of Charitrasara in Sanskrit and Chaundaraya Purana or Trishahti Lakshana Mahapurana in Kannada prose thus setting the trend for celebrated works of literature by Jaina scholars. The period of the Gangas also witnessed literary activity in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada. Notable among these are a translation of Gunadhya’s Vaddakatha from Prakrit to Sanskrit as well as a commentary on Kiratarjunaaya by Durvinitha, a learned Ganga king.

The literary zeal of the Jains continued well into the age of the Rashtrakutas, covering not only religion but also embracing many secular branches of learning including mathematics and astronomy. Giant literary figures like Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, thrived under the enlightened rule of the kings of this dynasty. Pamapa’s works included Vikramarjuna Vijaya also known as Pampa Bharata, giving a Jaina version of the Mahabharata Adipurana, narrating the story of Rishabadeva, the first tirthankara. Another Jain, Ranna, was the author of Sahasra-Bhima-Vijaya, describing the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana. Neminatha Purana, a history of the 22nd tirthankara, interprets the story of Krishna and the Pandavas the Jaina way. Ganithasarasangraha was a work on mathematics by Mahaveera, under the patronage of Amoghavarsha I. These are the names of but a few men of letters who adorned the court of the Rashtrakutas.

The fact that Jainism exerted considerable influence over the cultural life of Karnataka during the rule of the Rashtrakutas is borne by the fact that several basadis were erected for the further propagation of the religion in the State. Important among them is the Parsvanatha Basadi at Ron with its exquisitely carved grills depicting gandharvas in scroll work.
The vast inheritance of early and medieval Jaina architecture has been effectively carried into the modern world by Shri Veerendra Hegde by setting up a statue of Gommata at Dharmasthala near Mangalore. This statue is nearly 40ft high and has been carve by Ranjal Gopal Shenoy. To assert thee fact that Karnataka has been and continues to be the adobe of Jaina art and architecture.

Karnataka, in fact, is a treasure house of Jain manuscripts on subjects ranging from philosophy, grammer, vaastu, mathematics and religion. These manuscripts are in the form of paper and palm leaves in several temples and mutts in Bangalore. Some of them are in Halegannada (ancient Kannada) and many in Sanskrit. A national level exercise for surveying and documenting the manuscripts is already on.

Chandragupta, a Jain and founder of Mauryan Dynasty was the first emperor of India. He brought almost all of the south Asia under his control. He defeated many kings including .selucos Necoter, General of the great Alexander. Chandragupta became a Jain monk and took sallekhana at Shravanbelgola in Karnatak.

Ashok, the grandson of Chandragupt was also a Jain and the Emperor. He won many kings. I a war with Kaling, there was unbelievable violence killing hundred thousands of soldiers and people. It created a hate against war in the mind of Ashok. So he renounced Jainism and embraced Buddhism. Kunal, the son of Ashok and Samprati ( again he was a very big chakravarti than ashoka too), son of Kunal also were emperors and Jains, and had involved in wars. Later emperors of this dynasty embraced Buddhism. They were extremely non violent. As a result, last emperor of this dynasty Brahdrat was killed by his bramhin general Pushyamitra Shring. It was the end of Mourayans and rise of Shring dynasty. Shring dynasty was totally against Jains and Buddhists. So both the faith were declined in eastern India.

Mahameghvahan Kharvel was a very brave Jain emperor who rised in 2nd century B.C. in Kaling (Orissa). He was coroneted at the age of 24 and he defeated Satvahan kings of western India when he (Kharvel) was just 26. After two years, he attacked Ratthiks & Bhojaks of western India and defeated them. After two years he attacked powerful Magadh and then North India and then South India. Thus whole of India including present day Pakistan and Afghanistan became under his control.

Adishankaracharya, who had vowed to finish Jains and Buddhists and converted millions of Jains and Buddhists into Hinduism, converted many Jain temples all over India into Hindu temples and put Jain religious literature on fire was killed by two Jain monks, for helpless jain monks found that if they wont then surely he will fully wipe out jainism.

Jainism as per kerala ( http://www.keralaeverything.com/rel.htm )Though there is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around Palakkad in Kerala.

As per kerala tourism officials :Jainism was one of the first to be introduced in Kerala. The Jains who settled in Kerala made little effort to convert the Dravidians residing there. They came looking for a place where they could find an atmosphere of peace and quiet so that they could indulge in their meditation. During the 8th century A.D. Jainism in Kerala started its decline, and many of the Jains were being converted into the Hindu religion.

Evidence of early Jainism Influence(http://goacentral.com/Goamonuments/early_buddhist_and_jain_influence_in_goa.htm)
Jainism is another ancient religion of India, similar to but older than Buddhism. Founded and popularized by Shree Mahavir Jain. Unlike Buddhism which has almost no followers in India today, Jainism has a very strong presence in India. Many of its present day followers can be identified by their last name 'Jain".

There are ruins of three Jain temples belonging to Vijayanagar period. The first Jain Basti of Neminath is from Bandivade of Ponda taluka. The other two Jain temples are located in Cudnem and Jainkot area of Narve and both these temples belong to the Vijayanagar period.

Ruins of the Neminath Jain Basti at BandivadeA stone inscription from Nagueshi exhibited in the Museum of Archaeological Survey of India refers to the reconstruction of this Jain Basti during Vijayanagar period in 14th century. The Neminath Basti of Bandivade is square shaped and built of laterite blocks with grilled windows. An arch is provided at the entrance. It is possible that a dome existed over the structure. Lime mortar has been found to have been used extensively as the binding material.

Ruins of the Cudnem Jain TempleThe "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" are constructed of laterite with Lime mortar being used as the the binding material. The entrance of garbagriha has an arch. The laterite blocks discovered in the excavation clearly indicate that there were arches in the "Mukha Mandapa". These arches were embellished with a laterite floral pendant at the center of the arch. One such floral pendant has been discovered in a recently conducted excavation. The presence of these arches strongly suggest that there was a overlying dome covering the temple. This "Mukha Mandapa" is 8 x 8.30 meters. There are four pillars in the center and four others on each side wall. The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" stand on a 2meter high platform. The octagonal "Shikara" of the "Garbagriha" has five tiers. The lower most is half spherical with a rectangular small entrance for the "Garbagriha". This is the only medieval temple of Goa which has a "Nagara" (Indo-Aryan) architectural features.
The high platform and the tall Shikara give a sense of soaring height to the temple. The "Mukha Mandapa" has a gabled roof with tiles. A "Prakara" wall with a base of pillars has also been unearthed. This Jain temple is similar to the Saptakoteshwar temple of Narve and the Chandranath temple of Paroda. It is possible that this temple was the forerunner of these architecturally similar temples. The use of Lime mortar and the architectural features indicate that the temple belonged to Vijayanagar period. A broken stone head of a "Teerathankara" or a Jain saint, with beautifully sculpted curls was also found near the "Garbagriha". A stone torso of another Jain "Teerathankara" with a "Srivasta" symbol was also unearthed. Another find occurred while desilting a nearby well in the vicinity of the temple. At a depth of 5 meters, the right leg of a Statue was discovered. It appears that the broken head and the leg belonged to the same image. This image of a "Teerathankara" belongs to the Kadamba period. It however appears that Jains during the Kadamba period were not prosperous to begin with but in the subsequent Vijayanagar Period, they might have gained prosperity due to their active participation in mercantile activity.

Ruins of the Narve Jain TempleThe ruins today are called "Jainkot" and are located in the Village of Narve in Bicholim taluka. They lie very near the present temple of Saptakoteshwar . In front of the Saptakoteshwar temple, there is ancient pathway constructed of locally available laterite slabs which lead to the ruins of Jain temple. These consist of mainly door jams, ceiling canopy and lintels chlorite schist. The Jain temple was built of laterite. Lime mortar has also been noted to have been used extensively here also. In an inscription there is only a mention of the name "Sparsvanath" and along with the name of the month and day, corresponding to the English calendar date of March 13th, 1151 AD. During this period the Kadambas were in power and its ruler at that time was King Vijayaditya.